Editing Rachel Carson (section)

==Career==
[[File:Rachel Carson Conducts Marine Biology Research with Bob Hines.jpg|thumb|Carson and [[Robert W. Hines|Bob Hines]] researching off the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] in 1952]]
{{Listen|filename=Rachel Carson (As Told By EPA Administrator Gina McCarthy).ogg|title=Rachel Carson as told by EPA administrator Gina McCarthy}}
At the urging of her undergraduate biology mentor Mary Scott Skinker, Carson secured a temporary position with the [[United States Fish Commission|U.S. Bureau of Fisheries]], where she wrote radio copy for a series of weekly educational broadcasts called ''Romance Under the Waters''. The series of 52 seven-minute programs focused on aquatic life and was intended to generate public interest in fish biology and the bureau's work, a task that several writers before Carson had not managed. Carson also began submitting articles on marine life in the [[Chesapeake Bay]], based on her research for the series, to local newspapers and magazines.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=63–79}}</ref> Carson earned extra money as a lecturer at the University of Maryland's Dental and Pharmacy Schools and Johns Hopkins University.<ref name=Popkin>{{cite web |author=Popkin, Gabriel|title=Right Fish, Wrong Pond  |work=Johns Hopkins Magazine |date=June 3, 2013 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University|url=https://hub.jhu.edu/magazine/2013/summer/rachel-carson-at-hopkins/|access-date=March 24, 2025}}</ref>

Carson's supervisor, pleased with the success of the radio series, asked her to write the introduction to a public brochure about the fisheries bureau; he also worked to secure her the first full-time position that became available. Sitting for the [[United States federal civil service|civil service]] exam, she outscored all other applicants and, in 1936, became the second woman hired by the Bureau of Fisheries for a full-time professional position, as a junior aquatic biologist.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=79–82}}</ref>

Using her research and consultations with marine biologists as starting points, she wrote a steady stream of articles for ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'' and other newspapers. However, her family responsibilities further increased in January 1937 when her older sister died, leaving Carson as the sole breadwinner for her mother and two nieces.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=82–85}}</ref>

In July 1937, the ''[[The Atlantic|Atlantic Monthly]]'' accepted a revised version of an essay, ''The World of Waters'', that she originally wrote for her first fisheries bureau brochure. Her supervisor had deemed it too good for that purpose. The essay, published as ''Undersea'', was a vivid narrative of a journey along the ocean floor. It marked a major turning point in Carson's writing career. Publishing house [[Simon & Schuster]], impressed by ''Undersea'', contacted Carson and suggested that she expand it into a book. Several years of writing resulted in ''[[Under the Sea Wind]]'' (1941), which received excellent reviews but sold poorly. In the meantime, Carson's article-writing success continued with her features appearing in ''Sun Magazine'', ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', and ''[[Collier's]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=85–113}}</ref> Carson attempted to leave the Bureau (by then transformed into the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]]) in 1945. However, few jobs for naturalists were available, since most money for science was focused on technical fields in the wake of the [[Manhattan Project]].

In mid-1945, Carson first encountered the subject of [[DDT]], a revolutionary new pesticide—lauded as the "insect bomb" after the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]—that was only beginning to undergo tests for safety and [[Ecology|ecological]] effects. DDT was one of Carson's many writing interests at the time, but editors found the subject unappealing; she published nothing on DDT until 1962.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=114–120}}</ref>

Carson rose within the Fish and Wildlife Service, and in 1945 was supervising a small writing staff. In 1949, she was appointed chief editor of publications, which allowed her increased opportunities for fieldwork and freedom in choosing her writing projects; however, it also entailed increasingly tedious administrative responsibilities. By 1948, Carson was working on material for a second book and decided to begin a transition to writing full-time. That year, she took on a literary agent, [[Marie Rodell]]; they formed a close professional relationship that would last the rest of Carson's career.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=121–160}}</ref>

[[Oxford University Press]] expressed interest in Carson's book proposal for a life history of the ocean, spurring her to complete by early 1950 the manuscript of what would become ''The Sea Around Us''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=163–164}}.<br />• An apocryphal story holds that over twenty publishers rejected the book before Oxford University Press. In fact, it may have only been sent to one other publisher before being accepted. However, Rodell and Carson worked extensively to place chapters and excerpts in periodicals.</ref> Chapters appeared in ''[[Science Digest]]'' and ''[[The Yale Review]]'', which published a chapter, "The Birth of an Island," which won the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]'s George Westinghouse Science Writing Prize. Beginning in June 1951, nine chapters were serialized in ''[[The New Yorker]]''.

On July 2, 1951, the book was published by Oxford University Press.<!-- source is our article on the book --> ''The Sea Around Us'' remained on [[The New York Times Best Seller list|''The New York Times'' Bestseller List]] for 86 weeks, was abridged by ''[[Reader's Digest]]'', won the 1952 [[National Book Award for Nonfiction]]<ref name=nba1952>[https://www.nationalbook.org/awards-prizes/national-book-awards-1952 "National Book Awards—1952"]. [[National Book Foundation]]. Retrieved March 19, 2012.<br />(With acceptance speech by Carson and essay by [[Neil Baldwin (writer)|Neil Baldwin]] from the Awards 50th-anniversary publications.)</ref> and the [[John Burroughs Medal]], and resulted in Carson being awarded two honorary doctorates. She licensed a documentary film based on it, ''The Sea'', whose success led to republication of ''Under the Sea Wind'', which became a bestseller. With success, came financial security; in 1952, Carson was able to give up her job in order to concentrate on writing full-time.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp =164–241}}</ref>

Carson was inundated with requests for speaking engagements, [[fan mail]] and other correspondence regarding ''The Sea Around Us'', along with work on the script that she had secured the right to review.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=206–234}}</ref> She was very unhappy with the final version of the script by writer, director, and producer [[Irwin Allen]]; she found it untrue to the atmosphere of the book and scientifically embarrassing, describing it as "a cross between a believe-it-or-not and a breezy travelogue."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=215–216, 238–239}}. Quotation from a letter to Carson's film agent Shirley Collier, November 9, 1952. Quoted in Lear, p. 239.</ref> However, she discovered that her right to review the script did not extend to any control over its content. This led to many scientific inconsistencies inside the film. Despite Carson's requests to resolve these problems, Allen went forward with the script. He succeeded in producing a very successful documentary. It went on to win the 1953 [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature]]. However, Carson was so embittered by the experience that she never again sold film rights to her work.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=239–240}}</ref>

===Relationship with Dorothy Freeman===
Carson met Dorothy M. Freeman in the summer of 1953 on [[Southport, Maine|Southport Island, Maine]]. Freeman had written to Carson welcoming her to the area when she had heard that the famous author was to become her neighbor. It was the beginning of a devoted friendship that lasted the rest of Carson's life. Their relationship was conducted mainly through letters and during summers spent together in Maine. Over 12 years, they exchanged around 900 letters. Many of these were published in the book ''Always, Rachel'', published in 1995 by [[Beacon Press]].

Carson's biographer, [[Linda J. Lear]], writes that "Carson sorely needed a devoted friend and kindred spirit who would listen to her without advising and accept her wholly, the writer as well as the woman."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|p=248}}</ref> She found this in Freeman. The two women had common interests, nature chief among them, and began exchanging letters regularly while apart. They shared summers for the remainder of Carson's life and met whenever else their schedules permitted.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=243–288}}</ref>

Concerning the depth of their relationship, commentators have said: "the expression of their love was limited almost wholly to letters and very occasional farewell kisses or holding of hands".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Montefiore, Janet|title='The fact that possesses my imagination': Rachel Carson, Science and Writing|journal=Women: A Cultural Review|volume=12|issue=1|page=48|year=2001|doi=10.1080/09574040110034110|s2cid=161571630}}</ref> Freeman shared parts of Carson's letters with her husband to help him understand the relationship, but much of their correspondence was carefully guarded.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=255–256}}</ref> Some believe Freeman and Carson's relationship was romantic in nature.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thenation.com/article/deliberate-pace-rachel-carson/|title=A Deliberate Pace: On Rachel Carson|last=Gornick|first=Vivian|journal=The Nation|date=February 19, 2013|access-date=August 5, 2019|language=en-US|issn=0027-8378}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/03/26/the-right-way-to-remember-rachel-carson|title=The Right Way to Remember Rachel Carson|last=Lepore|first=Jill|magazine=The New Yorker|date=March 19, 2018|access-date=August 5, 2019|language=en|issn=0028-792X}}</ref> One of the letters from Carson to Freeman reads: "But, oh darling, I want to be with you so terribly that it hurts!", while in another, Freeman writes: "I love you beyond expression... My love is boundless as the Sea."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brainpickings.org/2017/01/13/rachel-carson-dorothy-freeman-letters/|title=Rachel Carson's Touching Farewell to Her Dearest Friend and Beloved|last=Popova|first=Maria|date=January 13, 2017|website=Brain Pickings|language=en-US|access-date=August 5, 2019}}</ref> Carson's last letter to Freeman before her death ends with: "Never forget, dear one, how deeply I have loved you all these years."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Year 135 – 1995: Always, Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman, 1952–1964 {{!}} 150 Years in the Stacks |url=https://libraries.mit.edu/150books/2011/05/21/1995/ |access-date=August 5, 2019 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Shortly before Carson's death, she and Freeman destroyed hundreds of letters. The surviving correspondence was published in 1995 as ''Always, Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman, 1952–1964: An Intimate Portrait of a Remarkable Friendship'', edited by Martha Freeman, Dorothy's granddaughter, who wrote at publication: "A few comments in early letters indicate that Rachel and Dorothy were initially cautious about the romantic tone and terminology of their correspondence. I believe this caution prompted their destruction of some letters within the first two years of their friendship..."<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Rachel |title=Always, Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman, 1952–1964 |last2=Freeman |first2=Dorothy |last3=Freeman |first3=Martha E. |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1994 |location=Boston |pages=XVI |language=en-us}}</ref> According to one reviewer, the pair "fit [[Carolyn Heilbrun]]'s characterization of a strong female friendship, where what matters is 'not whether friends are homosexual or heterosexual, lovers or not, but whether they share the wonderful energy of work in the public sphere.'"<ref>{{cite journal |author=Tjossem |first=Sarah F. |year=1995 |title=Review of ''Always Rachel: The Letters of Rachel Carson and Dorothy Freeman, 1952–1964'' |journal=Isis |volume=86 |issue=4 |pages=687–688 |doi=10.1086/357392}} quoting from: {{cite book |author=Heilbrun, Carolyn |title=Writing a Woman's Life |publisher=Ballantine |year=1988 |isbn=0-345-36256-X |page=108}}</ref>

According to her biographer, [[Linda Lear]], there was a disagreement about the final arrangements for Rachel. Her brother, Robert Carson, insisted that her cremated remains be buried beside their mother in Maryland. This was against her wishes to be buried in Maine. In the end, a compromise was reached. Carson's wishes were carried out by an organizing committee, including her agent (Marie Rodell), her editor (Paul Brooks), and Dorothy Freeman. In the spring of 1964, Dorothy received half of Rachel's ashes in the mail sent to her by Robert Carson. In the summer of that year, Dorothy carried out Rachel's final wishes, scattering her ashes along the rocky shores of Sheepscot Bay in Maine.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=482–483}}</ref>

===<span id="The Edge of the Sea"></span> ''The Edge of the Sea'' and transition to conservation work ===
Early in 1953, Carson began library and field research on the ecology and organisms of the Atlantic shore.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=223–244}}</ref> In 1955, she completed the third volume of her sea trilogy, ''The Edge of the Sea'', which focuses on life in [[coast]]al ecosystems, particularly along the [[East Coast of the United States|Eastern Seaboard]]. It appeared in ''The New Yorker'' in two condensed installments shortly before its October 26 book release by [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin]] (again a new publisher). By this time, Carson's reputation for clear and poetical prose was well established; ''The Edge of the Sea'' received highly favorable reviews, if not quite as enthusiastic as for ''The Sea Around Us''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=261–276}}</ref>

Through 1955 and 1956, Carson worked on several projects—including the script for an ''[[Omnibus (U.S. TV series)|Omnibus]]'' episode, "Something About the Sky"—and wrote articles for popular magazines. Her plan for the next book was to address [[evolution]]. However, the publication of [[Julian Huxley]]'s ''Evolution in Action''—and her own difficulty in finding a clear and compelling approach to the topic—led her to abandon the project. Instead, her interests were turning to conservation. She considered an environment-themed book project tentatively titled ''Remembrance of the Earth'' and became involved with [[The Nature Conservancy]] and other conservation groups. She also made plans to buy and preserve from development an area in Maine she and Freeman called the "Lost Woods."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=276–300}}</ref>

In early 1957, a family tragedy struck for the third time when one of her nieces she had cared for since the 1940s died at the age of 31, leaving her 5-year-old son, Roger Christie, an orphan. Carson took on the responsibility for Roger when she adopted him, along with caring for her aging mother. Carson moved to [[Silver Spring, Maryland]] to care for Roger and spent much of 1957 putting together a new living situation and studying specific environmental threats.

By late 1957, Carson was closely following federal proposals for widespread pesticide spraying; the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) planned to eradicate [[Red imported fire ant|fire ants]]. Other spraying programs involving [[Organochloride|chlorinated hydrocarbons]] and [[organophosphate]]s were on the rise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=305–313}}</ref> For the rest of her life, Carson's main professional focus would be the dangers of pesticide overuse.

===''Silent Spring''===
{{Main|Silent Spring}}
{{See also|DDT|}}

''Silent Spring'', Carson's most influential book, was published by Houghton Mifflin on September 27, 1962.<ref name=McLaughlin>{{cite web |author=McLaughlin, Dorothy |title=Fooling with Nature: ''Silent Spring'' Revisited |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/nature/disrupt/sspring.html |access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref> The book described the harmful effects of pesticides on the environment, and is widely credited with helping launch the [[environmental movement]].<ref>Josie Glausiusz. (2007), Better Planet: Can A Maligned Pesticide Save Lives? ''Discover Magazine''. p. 34</ref> Carson was not the first or the only person to raise concern about DDT,<ref name="Distillations">{{cite journal|last1=Conis|first1=Elena |title=Beyond Silent Spring: An Alternate History of DDT |journal=Distillations |date=2017|volume=2|issue=4|pages=16–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/beyond-silent-spring-an-alternate-history-of-ddt|access-date=March 20, 2018}}</ref> but her combination of "scientific knowledge and poetic writing" reached a broad audience and helped to focus opposition to DDT use.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rachel Carson|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/rachel-carson|website=Science History Institute|date=June 2016|access-date=March 20, 2018}}</ref> The book's publication as a [[mass-market paperback]] by [[Fawcett Publications|Fawcett Crest]] in January 1964 spread Carson's message to a wider audience.{{cn|date=April 2025}} In 1994, an edition of ''Silent Spring'' was published with an introduction written by Vice President [[Al Gore]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Rachel Carson|url=http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/24hours/carson.html|publisher=National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=August 13, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010320143657/http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/24hours/carson.html|archive-date=March 20, 2001|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Carson |first=Rachel |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/30924447 |title=Silent spring |date=1994 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |others=Introduction by [[Al Gore]] |isbn=0395683297 |location=Boston |pages=XV-XXVI |chapter=Introduction |oclc=30924447 |chapter-url=http://eebweb.arizona.edu/courses/Ecol206/Gore1994.pdf}}</ref> In 2012 ''Silent Spring ''was designated a [[National Historic Chemical Landmarks|National Historic Chemical Landmark]] by the [[American Chemical Society]] for its role in the development of the modern environmental movement.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/rachel-carson-silent-spring.html|title = Legacy of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring|date = 2012|access-date = July 12, 2014|website = National Historic Chemical Landmarks|publisher = American Chemical Society}}</ref>

====Research and writing====
[[File:Rachel Carson House MD1.jpg|thumb|right|Carson's house in Colesville, Maryland, where she wrote ''Silent Spring'']]
Starting in the mid-1940s, Carson had become concerned about the use of synthetic pesticides, many of which had been developed through the [[military funding of science]] since [[World War II]]. However, the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]]'s 1957 gypsy moth, now called [[spongy moth]], eradication program prompted Carson to devote her research and her next book to pesticides and environmental poisons. The gypsy moth program involved aerial spraying of DDT and other pesticides mixed with [[fuel oil]], including the spraying of private land. Landowners on [[Long Island]] filed a lawsuit to have the spraying stopped, and many in affected regions followed the case closely.<ref name=CarsonPaull /> Though the suit was lost, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] granted petitioners the right to gain injunctions against potential environmental damage in the future; this laid the basis for later successful environmental actions.<ref name=CarsonPaull /><ref>{{cite journal|last=Fay|first=S.|title=Marjorie Spock |journal=The Ellsworth American |date=January 30, 2008 |page=7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Greene|first1=Jennifer|title=Obituary for Marjorie Spock|journal=Newsletter of the Portland Branch of Anthroposophical Society in Portland, Oregon|date=February 2008|volume=4|issue=2|page=7|url=http://www.portlandanthroposophy.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/February2008PortlandBranchNewsletter.pdf|access-date=August 29, 2015|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829182612/http://www.portlandanthroposophy.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/February2008PortlandBranchNewsletter.pdf|archive-date=August 29, 2015}}</ref>

The [[Audubon Naturalist Society]] also actively opposed such spraying programs and recruited Carson to help make public the government's exact spraying practices and the related research.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=312–317}}</ref> Carson began the four-year project of what would become ''Silent Spring'' by gathering examples of environmental damage attributed to DDT. She also attempted to enlist others to join the cause, such as essayist [[E. B. White]] and several journalists and scientists. By 1958, Carson had arranged a book deal, with plans to co-write with ''[[Newsweek]]'' science journalist Edwin Diamond. However, when ''The New Yorker'' commissioned a long and well-paid article on the topic from Carson, she began considering writing more than simply the introduction and conclusion as planned; soon, it was a solo project. (Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of ''Silent Spring'').<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=317–327}}</ref>

As her research progressed, Carson found a sizable community of scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental effects of pesticides.<ref name=CarsonPaull /> She also took advantage of her connections with many government scientists, who supplied her with confidential information. From reading the scientific literature and interviewing scientists, Carson found two scientific camps when it came to pesticides: those who dismissed the possible danger of pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof, and those who were open to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative methods such as [[biological pest control]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=327–336}}</ref>

She also found significant support and extensive evidence from a group of [[biodynamic agriculture]] organic market gardeners, their adviser, [[Ehrenfried Pfeiffer|Dr. Ehrenfried Pfeiffer]], other contacts, and their suite of legal actions (1957–1960) against the U.S. Government. According to recent research by Paull (2013), this may have been the primary and (for strategic reasons) uncredited source for Carson's book. [[Marjorie Spock]] and Mary T. Richards of Long Island, New York, contested the aerial spraying of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). They compiled their evidence and shared it with Carson, who used it, their extensive contacts, and the trial transcripts as a primary input for ''Silent Spring''. Carson wrote of the content as "a gold mine of information" and says, "I feel guilty about the mass of your material I have here"<ref>Carson, R. (1958 c.). MS typewritten letter: Dear Miss Spock; August 12, 1958. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.</ref> and makes multiple references to Pfeiffer and his correspondence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Paull |first=John |date=2013 |title=The Rachel Carson Letters and the Making of Silent Spring |journal=SAGE Open |language=en |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=215824401349486 |doi=10.1177/2158244013494861 |s2cid=145185549 |issn=2158-2440|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>Carson, R. (1958f). MS typewritten letter: Dear Mrs. Spock; March 26, 1958 (1 p.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.</ref>

By 1959, the USDA's [[Agricultural Research Service]] responded to the criticism by Carson and others with a public service film, ''Fire Ant on Trial''; Carson characterized it as "flagrant [[propaganda]]" that ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides (especially [[dieldrin]] and [[heptachlor]]) posed to humans and wildlife. That spring, Carson wrote a letter, published in ''[[The Washington Post]]'', that attributed the recent decline in bird populations—in her words, the "silencing of birds"—to pesticide overuse.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=342–346}}</ref> That was also the year of the "Great Cranberry Scandal": the 1957, 1958, and 1959 crops of U.S. [[cranberry|cranberries]] were found to contain high levels of the herbicide [[3-Amino-1,2,4-triazole|aminotriazole]] (which caused cancer in laboratory rats), and the sale of all cranberry products was halted. Carson attended the subsequent FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations; she came away discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry representatives, which included expert testimony that was firmly contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been studying. She also wondered about the possible "financial inducements behind certain pesticide programs."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=358–361}}</ref>

Research at the [[United States National Library of Medicine|Library of Medicine]] of the [[National Institutes of Health]] brought Carson into contact with medical researchers investigating the gamut of cancer-causing chemicals. Of particular significance was the work of [[National Cancer Institute]] researcher and environmental cancer section founding director [[Wilhelm Hueper]], who classified many pesticides as [[carcinogen]]s. Carson and her research assistant Jeanne Davis, with the help of NIH librarian Dorothy Algire, found evidence to support the pesticide-cancer connection; to Carson, the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array of synthetic pesticides was clear-cut, though such conclusions were very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying pesticide [[carcinogenesis]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=355–358}}</ref>

By 1960, Carson had more than enough research material, and the writing was progressing rapidly. In addition to the thorough literature search, she had investigated hundreds of individual incidents of pesticide exposure and the human sickness and ecological damage that resulted. However, in January, a duodenal ulcer followed by several infections kept her bedridden for weeks, greatly delaying the completion of ''Silent Spring''. As she was nearing full recovery in March (just as she was completing drafts of the two cancer chapters of her book), she discovered cysts in her left breast, one of which necessitated a [[mastectomy]]. Though her doctor described the procedure as precautionary and recommended no further treatment, by December, Carson discovered that the tumor was [[malignant]] and the cancer had [[metastasized]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=360–368}}</ref> Her research was also delayed by revision work for a new edition of ''The Sea Around Us'' and by a collaborative photo essay with [[Erich Hartmann (photographer)|Erich Hartmann]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=372–373}}. The photo essay, ''The Sea'', was published in ''Johns Hopkins Magazine'', May/June 1961; Carson provided the captions for Hartmann's photographs.</ref> Most of the research and writing was done by the fall of 1960, except for the discussion of recent research on [[biological pest control]]s and investigations of a handful of new pesticides. However, further health troubles slowed the final revisions in 1961 and early 1962.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=376–377}}</ref> While writing the book, Carson chose to hide her illness so that the pesticide companies could not use it against her (she worried that if the companies knew, they would use it as ammunition to make her book look untrustworthy and biased).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Koehn |first1=Nancy |title=Forged in crisis : the power of courageous leadership in turbulent times |date=October 3, 2017 |isbn=9781501174445 |page=416 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |edition=First Scribner hardcoverition}}</ref>

Finding a title for the book proved difficult; "Silent Spring" was initially suggested as a title for the chapter on birds. By August 1961, Carson finally agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent Marie Rodell: ''Silent Spring'' would be a metaphorical title for the entire book, suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural world, rather than a single chapter title about the literal absence of birdsong.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=375, 377–378, 386–387, 389}}</ref> With Carson's approval, editor [[Paul Brooks (author)|Paul Brooks]] at Houghton Mifflin arranged for illustrations by Louis and Lois Darling, who also designed the cover. The final writing was the first chapter, ''A Fable for Tomorrow'', which Carson intended as a gentle introduction to what might otherwise be a forbiddingly serious topic. By mid-1962, Brooks and Carson had essentially finished the editing and were laying the groundwork for promoting the book by sending the manuscript out to select individuals for final suggestions.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=390–397}}</ref>

====Content====
Biographer Mark Hamilton Lytle writes that Carson "quite self-consciously decided to write a book calling into question the [[paradigm]] of [[scientific progress]] that defined [[post-war]] American culture." The overriding theme of ''Silent Spring'' is the powerful—and often adverse—effect humans have on the natural world.<ref>{{harvnb|Lytle|2007|pp=166–176}}</ref>

Carson's main argument is that pesticides have detrimental effects on the environment; they are more properly termed ''[[biocide]]s'', she argues, because their effects are rarely limited to the target pests. DDT is a prime example, but other synthetic pesticides come under scrutiny, many of which are subject to [[bioaccumulation]]. Carson also accuses the [[chemical industry]] of intentionally spreading [[disinformation]] and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically. Most of the book is devoted to pesticides' effects on natural ecosystems. However, four chapters also detail cases of human pesticide poisoning, cancer, and other illnesses attributed to pesticides.<ref>{{harvnb|Lytle|2007|pp=166–172}}</ref> Regarding DDT and cancer, the subject of so much subsequent debate, Carson only briefly mentions the topic:
{{blockquote|In laboratory tests on animal subjects, DDT has produced suspicious liver tumors. Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to classify them but felt there was some "justification for considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas." Dr. Hueper [author of ''Occupational Tumors and Allied Diseases''] now gives DDT the definite rating of a "chemical carcinogen."<ref>{{harvnb|Carson|1962|p=225}}</ref>}}

Carson predicted increased consequences in the future, especially as targeted pests develop [[pesticide resistance]]. At the same time, weakened ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated [[invasive species]]. The book closes with a call for a [[biotic material|biotic]] approach to pest control as an alternative to chemical pesticides.<ref>{{harvnb|Lytle|2007|pp=169, 173}}</ref>

Regarding DDT, Carson never called for an outright ban. Part of the argument she made in ''Silent Spring'' was that even if DDT and other insecticides had no environmental side effects, their indiscriminate overuse was counter-productive because it would create insect resistance, making them useless in eliminating the target insect populations:

{{blockquote|No responsible person contends that insect-borne disease should be ignored. The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is either wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse. The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease by controlling insect vectors of infection. However, it has heard little of the other side of the story—the defeats, the short-lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts. Even worse, we may have destroyed our very means of fighting.<ref>{{harvnb|Carson|1962|p=266}}</ref>}}

Carson further noted that "Malaria programmes are threatened by resistance among mosquitoes"<ref>{{harvnb|Carson|1962|p=267}}</ref> and emphasized the advice given by the director of Holland's Plant Protection Service: "Practical advice should be 'Spray as little as you possibly can' rather than 'Spray to the limit of your capacity' ... Pressure on the pest population should always be as slight as possible."<ref name="Carson 1962 275">{{harvnb|Carson|1962|p=275}}</ref>

====Promotion and reception====
Carson and the others involved with the publication of ''Silent Spring'' expected fierce criticism. They were particularly concerned about the possibility of being sued for [[Defamation|libel]]. Carson was also undergoing [[radiation therapy]] to combat her spreading cancer and expected to have little energy to devote to defending her work and responding to critics. In preparation for the anticipated attacks, Carson and her agent attempted to amass as many prominent supporters as possible before the book's release.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=397–400}}</ref>

Most of the book's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists with relevant expertise, among whom Carson found strong support. Carson attended the [[White House]] Conference on Conservation in May 1962; Houghton Mifflin distributed proof copies of ''Silent Spring'' to many of the delegates and promoted the upcoming ''New Yorker'' serialization. Among many others, Carson also sent a proof copy to Supreme Court Associate Justice [[William O. Douglas]], a longtime environmental advocate who had argued against the court's rejection of the Long Island pesticide spraying case (and who had provided Carson with some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides).<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=375, 377, 400–407}}. Douglas's dissenting opinion on the rejection of the case, ''Robert Cushman Murphy et al., v. Butler et al.'', from the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, is from March 28, 1960.</ref>

Though ''Silent Spring'' had generated a relatively high level of interest based on pre-publication promotion, this became much more intense with the serialization in ''The New Yorker'', which began on June 16, 1962, issue. This brought the book to the attention of the chemical industry and its lobbyists and a wide swath of the American populace. Around that time, Carson also learned that ''Silent Spring'' had been selected as the [[Book of the Month Club|Book of the Month]] for October; as she put it, this would "carry it to farms and hamlets all over that country that don't know what a bookstore looks like—much less ''The New Yorker''."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=407–408}}. Quotation (p. 408) from a June 13, 1962, letter from Carson to Dorothy Freeman.</ref> Other publicity included a positive editorial in ''[[The New York Times]]'' and excerpts of the serialized version in ''[[Audubon (magazine)|Audubon]]'' magazine, with another round of publicity in July and August as chemical companies responded. The story of the birth defect-causing drug [[thalidomide]] broke just before the book's publication as well, inviting comparisons between Carson and [[Frances Oldham Kelsey]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]] reviewer who had blocked the drug's sale in the United States.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=409–413}}</ref>

Following the publication of ''Silent Spring'', Carson as a woman in science faced personal attacks. [[Linda Lear]], Carson's biographer, describes in the Introduction to ''Silent Spring'' how critics sought to undermine Carson's arguments by calling her a "bird and bunny lover."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Carson |first=Rachel |author-link=Rachel Carson |url=https://search.worldcat.org/title/854680807 |title=Silent Spring |date= |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |others=Introduction by Linda Lear |isbn=9780618249060 |edition=50th Anniversary |pages=10–19 |language=English}}</ref> In the eyes of the [[chemical industry]], Carson was a "woman out of control," going outside the bounds of her gender by making claims about an industry within the scientific community.<ref name=":1" />

<!-- Commented out: [[File:Silent Spring Book-of-the-Month-Club edition.JPG|thumb|The [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] edition of ''Silent Spring'', including an endorsement by Justice Douglas, had a first print run of 150,000 copies, two-and-a-half times the combined size of the two conventional printings of the initial release.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=416, 419}}</ref>]] -->
In the weeks leading up to the September 27, 1962, publication, there was strong opposition to ''Silent Spring'' from the chemical industry. [[DuPont]] (a high market-share manufacturer of DDT and [[2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid|2,4-D]]) and [[Velsicol Chemical Corporation]] (exclusive manufacturer of [[chlordane]] and [[heptachlor]]) were among the first to respond. DuPont compiled an extensive report on the book's press coverage and estimated impact on public opinion. Velsicol threatened legal action against Houghton Mifflin and ''The New Yorker'' and ''Audubon'' unless the planned ''Silent Spring'' features were canceled. Chemical industry representatives and lobbyists also lodged a range of non-specific complaints, some anonymously. Chemical companies and associated organizations produced a number of their own brochures and articles promoting and defending pesticide use. However, Carson's and the publishers' lawyers were confident in the vetting process ''Silent Spring'' had undergone. The magazine and book publications proceeded as planned, as did the large Book-of-the-Month printing (which included a pamphlet endorsing the book by William O. Douglas).<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=412–420}}</ref>

[[American Cyanamid]] biochemist [[Robert White-Stevens]] and former Cyanamid chemist [[Thomas H. Jukes|Thomas Jukes]] were among the most aggressive critics, especially of Carson's analysis of DDT.<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=433–434}}</ref> According to White-Stevens, "If man were to follow the teachings of Miss Carson, we would return to the Dark Ages, and the insects and diseases and vermin would once again inherit the earth."<ref name="frontline_Cyanamid">{{Cite web |title=Special Reports – Silent Spring Revisited {{!}} Fooling With Nature {{!}} FRONTLINE {{!}} PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/nature/disrupt/sspring.html |access-date=July 2, 2023 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> Others went further, attacking Carson's scientific credentials (because her training was in marine biology rather than biochemistry) and her character. White-Stevens labeled her "...a fanatic defender of the cult of the balance of nature,"<ref>Quoted in {{harvnb|Lear|1997|p=434}}</ref> while former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture [[Ezra Taft Benson]], in a letter to former President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]], reportedly concluded that because she was unmarried despite being physically attractive, she was "probably a [[Communism|Communist]]."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=429–430}}. Benson's supposed comments were widely repeated at the time but have not been directly confirmed.</ref>

Many critics repeatedly asserted that she was calling for the elimination of all pesticides. However, Carson had made it clear she was not advocating the banning or complete withdrawal of helpful pesticides but was instead encouraging responsible and carefully managed use with an awareness of the chemicals' impact on the entire ecosystem.<ref>{{harvnb|Murphy|2005|p=9}}</ref> In fact, she concludes her section on DDT in ''Silent Spring'' not by urging a total ban but with advice for spraying as little as possible to limit the development of resistance.<ref name="Carson 1962 275" />

The academic community, including prominent defenders such as [[Hermann Joseph Muller|H. J. Muller]], [[Loren Eiseley]], [[Clarence Cottam]], and [[Frank Edwin Egler|Frank Egler]], by and large, backed the book's scientific claims; public opinion soon turned Carson's way as well. The chemical industry campaign backfired, as the controversy greatly increased public awareness of potential pesticide dangers, as well as ''Silent Spring'' book sales. Pesticide use became a major public issue, especially after the ''[[CBS Reports]]'' TV special ''The Silent Spring of Rachel Carson'' that aired April 3, 1963. The program included segments of Carson reading from ''Silent Spring'' and interviews with several other experts, mostly critics (including White-Stevens); according to biographer [[Linda Lear]], "in juxtaposition to the wild-eyed, loud-voiced Dr. Robert White-Stevens in white lab coat, Carson appeared anything but the hysterical alarmist that her critics contended."<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=437–449}}; quotation from 449.</ref> Reactions from the estimated audience of ten to fifteen million were overwhelmingly positive, and the program spurred a congressional review of pesticide dangers and the public release of a pesticide report by the [[President's Science Advisory Committee]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=449–450}}</ref> Within a year or so of publication, the attacks on the book and Carson had largely lost momentum.<ref name="time100">{{Cite web |date=September 19, 2000 |title=TIME 100: Scientists & Thinkers – Rachel Carson |url=http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/carson03.html |access-date=July 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000919134424/http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/carson03.html |archive-date=September 19, 2000 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|p=461}}</ref>

In one of her last public appearances, Carson testified before President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s Science Advisory Committee. The committee issued its report on May 15, 1963, largely backing Carson's scientific claims.<ref name="nwhp_bio">{{cite web|url=http://www.nwhp.org/tlp/biographies/carson/carson-bio.html |title=2003 National Women's History Month Honorees: Rachel Carlson |access-date=March 13, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051208074458/http://www.nwhp.org/tlp/biographies/carson/carson-bio.html |archive-date=December 8, 2005}}. Retrieved September 23, 2007.</ref> Following the report's release, she also testified before a [[United States Senate]] subcommittee to make policy recommendations. Though Carson received hundreds of other speaking invitations, she could not accept the great majority of them. Her health was steadily declining as her cancer outpaced the radiation therapy, with only brief periods of remission. She spoke as much as she was physically able, however, including a notable appearance on ''[[Today (U.S. TV program)|The Today Show]]'' and speeches at several dinners held in her honor. In late 1963, she received a flurry of awards and honors: the [[National Audubon Society#Audubon Medal|Audubon Medal]] (from the [[National Audubon Society]]), the [[Cullum Geographical Medal]] (from the [[American Geographical Society]]), and induction into the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lear|1997|pp=451–461, 469–473}}</ref>