Editing Rendang (section)

== History ==
=== Timeline of documentation ===
==== The first known use of the word ====
Food historian Fadly Rahman traces the earliest reference to rendang to the early 16th-century Malay manuscript ''[[Hikayat Amir Hamzah]]'' associated with the [[Malacca Sultanate]]{{refn|group=n|In the 15th and 16th centuries, at the height of the Malacca Sultanate's power, its capital became a key Asian port, controlling much of the region along the Malacca Straits (Malay Peninsula and Sumatra).}} (1400–1528).<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal">{{Cite journal | last = Rahman | first = Fadly | title = Tracing the origins of rendang and its development | journal = Journal of Ethnic Foods | date=1 September 2020 |volume=7 | issue=28 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00065-1| doi-access = free }}</ref> Written during the spread of Islam in the Malay world, this adaptation of the Persian [[Hamzanama]] was later compiled into Malay and intended to inspire Malacca's soldiers in their fight against the Portuguese in 1511. In Malay version, there mentioned the words "rendang" and "merendang" (roasting) which is quoted as follows:<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>

{{Verse translation|lang=msa|...Khoja Buzurjumhur Hakim pun pergi pula ke kedai orang merendang daging kambing, lalu ia berkata ‘beri apalah daging kambing rendang ini barang segumpal...
|...Khoja Buzurjumhur Hakim went to the stall where people were ''merendang'' (roasting) goat meat and said, 'give me just a piece of this goat meat ''rendang''...'}}

This passage suggests that ''merendang'' refers to a cooking technique, while ''rendang'' describes the resulting dish have been part of the Malay vocabulary since the 16th century.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>

==== Earliest references in European texts ====
[[File:Vocabularium, ofte Woordenboek, in 't Duytsch en Maleys (IA vocabulariumoft00dancgoog).djvu|page=67|thumb|right|upright=1.4|The Dutch-Malay dictionary from 1650 lists {{lang|ms|rendang}} as the translation for the Dutch word {{lang|nl|fricasseren}}, an archaic Dutch spelling of [[fricassee]].{{refn|group=n|The ''Vocabularium, ofte Woorden-boek, in 't Duytsch en Maleysch'' was first compiled and published by Caspar Wiltens and Sebastiaan Danckaerts in 1623. In 1650, it was significantly expanded in Amsterdam by Justus Heurnius, with contributions from Jan van Hasel and Albert Ruyl. Further revisions were made by Frederik Gueynier in Batavia in 1677, and it was updated again by Petrus van der Vorm in 1708, also in Batavia.<ref name="Pedoman Bahasa dan Sastra Melayu">{{cite book | last = J. J. de Hollander | title = Pedoman Bahasa dan Sastra Melayu | publisher = Balai Pustaka | pages = 332 | year = 1984}}</ref>}}<ref>Wiltens, C., Danckaerts, S., & Heurnius, J. (1650). [https://books.google.com.my/books?id=3GcTAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA55#v=onepage&q&f=false Vocabularium, ofte Woorden-Boeck: nae ordre van den Alphabeth in't Duytsch en Maleys]. Ghedruckt door ordre van de E.E. heeren bewinthehebberen der Geoctroyeerde Oost-Indische Compagnie.</ref><ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>]]

Hoogervorst's research, traces the modern term {{lang|ms|rendang}} back to the Malay-Dutch dictionary first compiled in [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] and published by Caspar Wiltens and Sebastiaan Danckaert in 1623,<ref name="Pedoman Bahasa dan Sastra Melayu"/><ref>{{cite book | last1=Wiltens |first1= C. | last2=Danckaerts | first2=S. | year=1623 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqsnzOpsZ9oC&dq=rindang&pg=PA106 | title=Vocabularium, ofte woort-boeck, naer ordre vanden alphabet in 't Duytsch-Maleysch, ende Maleysch-Duytsch | location=National Library of the Netherlands | publisher=De weduwe, ende erfghenamen van wijlen Hillebrant Jacobssz van Wouw | lang=nl}}</ref> where it was defined as "to fry in butter or oil, to fry, to fricassee".<ref name="Hoogervorst Journal">{{Cite journal | last = G. Hoogervorst | first = Tom | title = Seventeenth-century Malay wordlists and their potential for etymological scholarship | journal = Journal of the Humanities of Indonesia | pages = 567 | year = 2024 | url = https://scholarhub.ui.ac.id/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1782&context=wacana}}</ref> The dictionary was expanded and updated multiple times. According to Fadly Rahman, the author of the dictionary attempted to translate ''rendang'' using a European dish, something that his readers would be familiar with — [[fricassee]], a French cooking method that involves cutting meat into pieces and braising it.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>

==== As a tradition in royal Malay banquets ====
Khir Johari notes that {{lang|ms|rendang tumis}} is mentioned in the ''[[Hikayat Hang Tuah]]'', a classic Malay literary masterpiece from around the 17th-century.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hooker |first=Virginia Matheson |date=2016 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |title=Hang Tuah, Hikayat |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-3/*-COM_30299 |journal=Encyclopaedia of Islam |language=en |edition=3 |doi=10.1163/1573-3912_ei3_COM_30299 |access-date=20 June 2023 |via=Brill|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another manuscript, ''[[Hikayat Awang Sulung Merah Muda]]'', reflects 18th-century life and cooking traditions. In the narration, a prince hunts and captures a ''[[Tragulus|pelanduk]]'' (mouse deer), which is then prepared in various styles — ''tumis'', ''rendang'', and ''gulai''. Tumis refers to a dish that is more like soup, while rendang resembles the slow-cooked dish we know today. These manuscripts offer a glimpse into the Malay cuisine of the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name="Abd. Razak">{{cite thesis | last = Aziz | first = Abd. Razak | title = Hibridisasi Masakan Melayu: Kajian Kes di Kuala Lumpur | pages = 70 | year = 2018 | url = http://malrep.uum.edu.my/rep/Record/my.um.stud.8760}}</ref>

Historical records from the 19th century, including newspaper reports and travelogues, often described the key ingredients of ''rempah'' (spice paste) used in rendang, as well as its regional variations.<ref name="Singapore Infopedia"/> Renowned for his refined taste and hospitality, [[Abu Bakar of Johor|Sultan Abu Bakar]] of [[Johor Sultanate|Johor]] frequently hosted lavish banquets at his [[Istana Besar]] in Johor Bahru.{{refn|group=n|By the 19th century, much of the Malay Peninsula was under British control. However, Johor remained independent under Sultan Abu Bakar, who maintained the state's autonomy through strategic ties with European aristocrats.<ref name="Khir Johari Book"/>}} In 1873, [[John Frederick Adolphus McNair|J.F.A. McNair]] described a royal Malay banquet featuring dishes such as ''rendang [[Spanish mackerel|tenggiri]]'' and ''rendang chinchang [[Plentong]]''.<ref name="Khir Johari Book">{{cite book | last = Johari | first = Khir | title = The Food of Singapore Malays: Gastronomic Travels Through the Archipelago | publisher = Marshall Cavendish Editions | year = 2021 | isbn = 9789814841924}}</ref>{{rp|457-460}} In 1881, when [[Kalākaua|King David Kalākaua]] of [[Hawaiian Kingdom|Hawaii]] visited Johor, Sultan Abu Bakar served ''rendang tenggiri'' as part of the royal reception.<ref name="Maharajah Abu Bakar 1881">{{Cite web|url=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/page/stoverland18811031-1.1.9|title='Straits Times Overland Journal|website=eresources.nlb.gov.sg}}</ref>

==== Made popular through cookbooks and newspapers ====
By the early 20th century, rendang recipes began appearing in published cookbooks and newspapers across [[British Malaya]] and the [[Dutch East Indies]]. On 2 February 1917, [[Soenting Melajoe]] featured an article by Datoek Soetan Maharadja, noting that  Europeans residing in Palembang, Batavia, and Kupang had written to Minangkabau women, sending money through the magazine’s editor to request the preparation and delivery of “rendang Alam Minangkabau”.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Fadly |title=Tracing the origins of rendang and its development |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |pages=28 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00065-1 |date=1 September 2020|volume=7 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ''The "Mem's" Own Cookery Book: 420 Tried and Economical Recipes for Malaya'' (1920) by Mrs. Kinsey, published in Singapore, included a recipe for "rundang" that used curry powder and could be served with spaghetti.{{refn|group=n|''The "Mem's" Own Cookery Book'' was first published in 1920 by Mrs. Kinsey, wife of British colonial official William Edward Kinsey, who was based in Malaya. In the preface, she notes that she tested the recipes in Seremban, Negeri Sembilan between 1915 and 1919. The cookbook features dishes like rendang, reflecting the flavors that were familiar to the British colonial palate.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Senior Librarian Bonny Tan delves into ''The "Mem's" Own Cookery Book'' (1929)|url=https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/vol-7/issue-3/oct-dec-2011/malayan-cookery-book/|journal=BiblioAsia |publisher=National Library of Singapore |volume=7 |issue=3 |date=October–December 2011}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Curry Chronicles|url=https://biblioasia.nlb.gov.sg/videos/curry-chronicles/|website=BiblioAsia}}</ref> In 1936, R.A. Kardinah's ''Cooking Guide for Ladies'', published in Batavia, featured a chicken rendang recipe that emphasized slow cooking, though it adapted traditional ingredients.

==== Contemporary era ====
[[File:Sari Bundo Surakarta.JPG|thumb|left| "Padang restaurant" in Surakarta.]]

In Indonesia, rendang is mainly associated with Minangkabau. The popularity of rendang grew with the presence of Minangkabau-style ''lepau'' (food stalls) in areas where Minangkabau migrants settled. Their presence in new areas played a significant role in popularizing rendang as a signature dish of West Sumatra. Today, rendang stands as the iconic menu item in Minangkabau restaurants, often accompanied by other meat-based dishes.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>

In Malaysia and Singapore, rendang is often paired with iconic dishes such as [[nasi lemak]] — a national favorite — or [[lemang]], Malay glutinous rice cooked in bamboo, particularly during festivals like Hari Raya.<ref name="Lemang dan ketupat pembuka selera sa-tiap pagi raya">{{Cite web|url=https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/digitised/article/beritaharian19671226-1.2.77|title=Lemang dan ketupat pembuka selera sa-tiap pagi raya|website=eresources.nlb.gov.sg |publisher=[[Berita Harian]] |date=26 December 1967 |page=10 |access-date=29 March 2025}} Microflim: NL5342.</ref> However, rendang has also become a staple in Malay eateries. It even features on the menus of international restaurants, showcasing its enduring appeal and cultural significance.<ref name="Khir Johari Book"/>

=== Theories on origin ===
==== From India ====
Rendang, often regarded as an exclusive Malay-Minangkabau dish, is heavily influenced by Indian cuisine. Many of its ingredients, such as cardamom, coriander, garlic, shallots, chili, ginger, galangal, lemongrass, bay leaves, tamarind, and turmeric, are staples in Indian cooking.<ref name="Treasures of Sumatra">{{cite book |last1=Utomo |first1=Bambang Budi |title=Treasures of Sumatra |last2=Karim |first2=Mulyawan |last3=Sundari |first3=Ekowati |publisher=Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan |year=2009 |isbn=9786024372255 |pages=24}}</ref> Winarno and Agustinah believe rendang may have been inspired by curry, a dish combining meat and spices in North India. Indian traders who traveled to West Sumatra brought their culinary traditions with them, possibly influencing the development of rendang.<ref name="The treasure of Minangkabau">{{Cite journal | last1 = Nurmufida | first1 = Muthia | last2 = Wangrimen | first2 = Gervasius H. | last3 = Reinalta | first3 = Risty | last4 = Leonardi | first4 = Kevin | title = Rendang: The treasure of Minangkabau | journal = Journal of Ethnic Foods | year = 2017 | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 232–235 | doi = 10.1016/j.jef.2017.10.005 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It likely traces its roots to Indian merchants, though it has undergone multiple layers of evolution over time. During this period, Malaysia and Indonesia had yet to emerge as distinct geographical entities, resulting in a deep shared culinary and cultural history.<ref name="Kristang"/>

==== From West Sumatra ====
Gusti Asnan notes that the earliest mention of ''randang'' in Minangkabau culture appears in J.L. van der Toorn's dictionary from 1891. However, he believes that it had been familiar to the Minangkabau people long before this record.<ref name="Gusti Asnan">{{citation | last = Asnan | first = Gusti | title = Sejarah Rendang Disajikan pada "Semiloka Penyusunan Naskah Akademik Randang Menuju Warisan Dunia" | year = 2021 | url = http://repo.unand.ac.id/45069/1/Bahan%20Presentasi%20%28PPT%29%20Semiloka%20Penyusunan%20Naskah%20Akademik%20Randang%20Menuju%20Warisan%20Dunia.pdf}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" 
|+ Reconstruction of ''randang'' history by Gusti Asnan<ref name="Gusti Asnan"/><ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>{{refn|group=n|Gusti Asnan acknowledges that his claims about the history of rendang are interpretative, where it is a normal part of historical reconstruction and an essential aspect of historical research methods.<ref name="Gusti Asnan"/>}}
|- 
! ''Randang'' has been known to Minang !! Argumentation
|-
| since the 16th century (or earlier) || based on the migration of Minang people to Peninsular Malaysia
|-
| since the 1830s || based on the information in H.J.J.L. Ridder de Stuers' report{{refn|group=n|However, Fadly Rahman’s analysis of de Stuers' book found no explicit mention of rendang.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/> The Dutch record describes a "blackened, charred dish".<ref name="Rendang nan Enak itu">{{cite book | last = S. Metron Masdison | title = Rendang nan Enak itu| year = 2018| publisher = Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa|url=https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/resource/doc/files/Rendang_nan_Enak_Itu-S_Metron_Masdison-Final_0.pdf | isbn = 9786024372255}}</ref>{{rp|13}}}}
|}

The [[Minangkabau people]] are famous for their [[:id:Merantau|Merantau]] culture, which is to leave their hometowns in [[West Sumatra]]. Since ancient times, [[Minangkabau people|Minang people]] who migrate will be equipped with rendang because it can be durable. Migratory travel at that time did not use transportation as it is today. In the past, [[Minangkabau people|Minang people]] took a boat that took a long time to get to the land of the region. They are equipped with rendang so that it can be used as a provision on the trip.<ref name="Sejarah Rendang Merantau"/>

=== Possible Portuguese influences ===
[[File:Portuguese discoveries and explorationsV2en.png|thumb|center|upright=3|Goa, Malacca, and Macau were key stops along the Portuguese spice trade routes (in blue) in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Portuguese also introduced [[chili peppers|chili]] to Asia, and these quickly became integral to local cuisines.<ref name="Boileau"/>{{rp|11-12}}]]

According to culinary historian Janet P. Boileau, Portuguese cooks had a unique method of frying meat after braising, unlike the Arab technique of frying before boiling. This approach, adopted by Luso-Asian cooks, may have influenced local culinary practices including rendang.<ref name="Boileau">{{cite thesis | last = Boileau | first = Janet | title = A culinary history of the Portuguese Eurasians: the origins of Luso-Asian cuisine in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. | year = 2010 | s2cid = 166582078 }}</ref>{{rp|61}} When the [[Portuguese Malacca|Portuguese ruled Malacca]] (1511–1641), they brought various cultural and culinary influences to the [[Malay Peninsula]] and neighboring [[Sumatra]]. Portuguese cuisine introduced preservation techniques and terms like ''[[acar]]'', ''[[Shrimp paste|belacan]]'', ''[[Sponge cake|baulu]]'', and ''[[butter|mentega]]''.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/><ref name="Fadly Rahman Book">{{cite book | last = Rahman | first = Fadly | title = Jejak rasa Nusantara sejarah makanan Indonesia | publisher = Gramedia Pustaka Utama | pages = 51–52 | year = 2023 | isbn=9786020335216}}</ref>

After [[Siege of Malacca (1641)|Malacca fell to the Dutch]], the [[Kristang people|Kristang community]] — descendants of Malaccan Portuguese settlers — faced economic challenges and sought cost-effective ways to prepare food. They adopted techniques similar to those used by their counterparts in [[Portuguese Macau]], such as frying meat with minimal water until it blackened, resembling ''bafado''. (''Bafado'' is derived from the term ''abafado'', which means "a dish of stew".)<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/> This method led to the creation of the Kristang version of dry beef curry<ref name="Kristang">{{cite book | last = Jackson | first = Annabel | title = The Making of Macau's Fusion Cuisine From Family Table to World Stage | publisher = Hong Kong University Press | year = 2020 | pages = 70 | isbn = 9789888528349}}</ref> and then spread to the Malay people and reached the Minangkabau.<ref name="Fadly Rahman Journal"/>

In the early 16th century, the arrival of [[Tomé Pires]] and the writings of [[João de Barros]] marked the beginning of Portuguese influence in [[West Sumatra]] during the Portuguese control of Malacca.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Fadly |title=Tracing the origins of rendang and its development |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |pages=28 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00065-1 |date=1 September 2020|volume=7 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This contact likely introduced culinary elements such as ''Abafado'', meaning “a dish of stew,” which evolved into ''bafado''<ref>{{cite web |last1=Dalgado |first1=Sebastião Rodolfo |title=Influence of Portuguese vocables in Asiatic languages. [trans.] |url=https://ia801400.us.archive.org/28/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.84109/2015.84109.Portuguese-Vocables-Asiatic-Languages.pdf |website=Internet Archive |publisher=Oriental Institute Baroda}}</ref> and was later adapted as ''balado'' in [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]], which has since become a widely recognized culinary term in [[Padang cuisine|Minangkabau cuisine]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Fadly |title=Tracing the origins of rendang and its development |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |pages=28 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00065-1 |date=1 September 2020|volume=7 |doi-access=free }}</ref> With both ''bafado'' and ''balado'' serving food preservation purposes, and considering the movement of [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]] traders across the [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca Strait]] from [[Sumatra]] to [[Peninsular Malaysia|Peninsula Malaysia]], it reflects Luso’s culinary influence may be
spread due to human traffic activities between two regions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Fadly |title=Tracing the origins of rendang and its development |journal=Journal of Ethnic Foods |pages=28 |doi=10.1186/s42779-020-00065-1 |date=1 September 2020|volume=7 |doi-access=free }}</ref>