Editing Roman naming conventions (section)

==Origin and development==
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As in other cultures, the early peoples of Italy probably used a single name, which later developed into the praenomen.<ref name="OCD:Names"/> [[Marcus Terentius Varro]] wrote that the earliest Italians used simple names.<ref name="De Praenominibus">Gaius Titius Probus, ''De Praenominibus'', epitome by Julius Paris.</ref>{{primary source inline|date = March 2023}} Names of this type could be honorific or aspirational, or might refer to deities, physical peculiarities, or circumstances of birth.<ref name="OCD:Names"/> In this early period, the number of personal names must have been quite large; but with the development of additional names the number in widespread use dwindled.<ref name="OCD:Names"/> By the early Republic, about three dozen Latin praenomina remained in use, some of which were already rare; about eighteen were used by the [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]].<ref name="Harper's:Nomen">''[[Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities|Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities]]'', Second Edition, [[Harry Thurston Peck]], Editor (1897), "Nomen."</ref> Barely a dozen praenomina remained in general use under the Empire, although aristocratic families sometimes revived older praenomina, or created new ones from cognomina.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>

The development of the nomen as the second element of the Italic name cannot be attributed to a specific period or culture.{{fact|date = March 2023}} From the earliest period it was common to both the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] speaking [[Italic peoples]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]].{{fact|date = March 2023}} The historian [[Livy]] relates the adoption of ''Silvius'' as a nomen by the [[kings of Alba Longa]] in honour of their ancestor, [[Silvius (mythology)|Silvius]].{{efn-lr|Livy refers to this as a ''cognomen'', or "surname", which in later Roman practice was the ''third'' element of the Roman ''tria nomina''; but it must be remembered that the word ''nomen'' simply means "name", and before the adoption of a second name, this is how the praenomen would have been called; thus, the first surnames adopted would have been known as ''cognomina'' before their gradually-increasing importance caused the word ''nomen'' to refer to them, while the original personal name became known as the ''praenomen'', or "forename".<ref name="Livy:i.3"/>}}<ref name="Livy:i.3">[[Livy|Titus Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'' i. 3.</ref>{{primary source inline|date = March 2023}} As part of Rome's foundation myth, this statement cannot be regarded as historical fact,{{says who|date = March 2023}} but it does indicate the antiquity of the period to which the Romans themselves ascribed the adoption of hereditary surnames.{{fact|date = March 2023}}<!--If the citation that appears in the footnote is intended to cover any oc the preceding content of this paragraph, it must appear again, in the paragraph following what information it supports.-->{{efn-lr|Although a few individuals mentioned in relation to the period of and before Rome's legendary foundation in the eighth century BC are known by only a single name, it is equally difficult to discern which of these represent actual historical figures, and if so, whether their names were accurately remembered by the historians who recorded these myths centuries later. [[Romulus and Remus]], together with their foster-father, the herdsman [[Faustulus]], are among those easily remembered; but even supposing that Romulus and Remus are the names of historical persons, they belonged, in theory, to the royal house of the Silvii; or they might have borne no surname because they were said to have been fathered by [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] himself. Meanwhile, Faustulus may represent a mythical personage interjected into Rome's foundation legend; although it may be noted that his name is a diminutive of the Latin praenomen [[Faustus (praenomen)|Faustus]]. Almost all other persons mentioned as part of the traditions surrounding Romulus as the first [[King of Rome]] have both praenomen and nomen.<ref name="Harper's:Nomen"/><ref>[[Livy|Titus Livius]], ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'' i. 4–16.</ref>}}

In Latin, most nomina were formed by adding an adjectival suffix, usually ''-ius'', to the stem of an existing word or name. Frequently this required a joining element, such as ''-e-, -id-, -il-'', or ''-on-''. Many common nomina arose as [[patronymic surname]]s; for instance, the nomen ''Marcius'' was derived from the praenomen ''Marcus'', and originally signified ''Marci filius'', "son of Marcus". In the same way, ''Sextius'', ''Publilius'', and ''Lucilius'' arose from the praenomina ''Sextus'', ''Publius'', and ''Lucius''.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>{{efn-lr|So common was this practice that nearly all Latin praenomina gave rise to patronymic nomina, including many that were uncommon in historical times.{{fact|date = March 2023}}}} This demonstrates that, much like later European surnames, the earliest nomina were not necessarily hereditary, but might be adopted and discarded at will, and changed from one generation to the next. The practice from which these patronymics arose also gave rise to the [[Roman naming conventions#Filiation|filiation]], which in later times, once the nomen had become fixed, nearly always followed the nomen. Other nomina were derived from names that later came to be regarded as cognomina, such as ''Plancius'' from ''Plancus'' or ''Flavius'' from ''Flavus''; or from place-names, such as ''Norbanus'' from ''[[Norba]]''.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>

The binomial name consisting of ''praenomen'' and ''nomen'' eventually spread throughout Italy. Nomina from different languages and regions often have distinctive characteristics; Latin nomina tended to end in ''-ius, -us, -aius, -eius, -eus'', or ''-aeus'', while Oscan names frequently ended in ''-is'' or ''-iis''; Umbrian names in ''-as, -anas, -enas'', or ''-inas'', and Etruscan names in ''-arna, -erna, -ena, -enna, -ina'', or ''-inna''. Oscan and Umbrian forms tend to be found in inscriptions; in Roman literature these names are often Latinized.<ref name="Harper's:Nomen"/>

Many individuals added an additional surname, or ''cognomen'', which helped to distinguish between members of larger families. Originally these were simply personal names, which might be derived from a person's physical features, personal qualities, occupation, place of origin, or even an object with which a person was associated. Some cognomina were derived from the circumstance of a person's adoption from one family into another, or were derived from foreign names, such as when a freedman received a Roman praenomen and nomen. Other cognomina commemorated important events associated with a person; a battle in which a man had fought ([[Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis|Regillensis]]), a town captured ([[Gaius Marcius Coriolanus|Coriolanus]]); or a miraculous occurrence ([[Marcus Valerius Corvus|Corvus]]). The late grammarians distinguished certain cognomina as ''[[Agnomen|agnomina]]''.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>

Although originally a personal name, the cognomen frequently became hereditary, especially in large families, or ''[[gens|gentes]]'', in which they served to identify distinct branches, known as ''stirpes''. Some Romans had more than one cognomen, and in aristocratic families it was not unheard of for individuals to have as many as three, of which some might be hereditary and some personal. These surnames were initially characteristic of patrician families, but over time cognomina were also acquired by the [[plebs|plebeians]]. However, a number of distinguished plebeian gentes, such as the [[Antonia gens|Antonii]] and the [[Maria gens|Marii]], were never divided into different branches, and in these families cognomina were the exception rather than the rule.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>

Cognomina are known from the beginning of the Republic, but were long regarded as informal names, and omitted from most official records before the second century BC. Later inscriptions commemorating the early centuries of the Republic supply these missing surnames, although the authenticity of some of them has been disputed. Under the Empire, however, the cognomen acquired great importance, and the number of cognomina assumed by the Roman aristocracy multiplied exponentially.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>

Adding to the complexity of aristocratic names was the practice of combining the full nomenclature of both one's paternal and maternal ancestors, resulting in some individuals appearing to have two or more complete names. Duplicative or politically undesirable names might be omitted, while the order of names might be rearranged to emphasize those giving the bearer the greatest prestige.<ref name="Salway"/>

Following the promulgation of the ''[[Constitutio Antoniniana]]'' in AD 212, granting Roman citizenship to all free men living within the Roman Empire, the praenomen and nomen lost much of their distinguishing function, as all of the newly enfranchised citizens shared the name of ''Marcus Aurelius''. The praenomen and sometimes the nomen gradually disappeared from view, crowded out by other names indicating the bearer's rank and social connections. Surviving inscriptions from the fifth century rarely provide a citizen's full nomenclature.<ref name="OCD:Names"/><ref name="Salway"/>

In the final centuries of the Empire, the traditional nomenclature was sometimes replaced by alternate names, known as ''signa''. In the course of the sixth century, as central authority collapsed and Roman institutions disappeared, the complex forms of Roman nomenclature were abandoned altogether, and the people of Italy and western Europe reverted to single names. Modern European nomenclature developed independently of the Roman model during the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]]. However, many modern names are derived from Roman originals.<ref name="OCD:Names"/>