Editing Rotenone (section)

== Uses ==

=== Use as piscicide in fisheries management ===
When absorbed through the gills, rotenone disrupts cellular respiration in fish, and may lead to their death, depending on the concentration used. Due to this, it has become a key tool in managing ecosystems affected by invasive or unwanted fish species, and as of 2024 there are no viable options that can replace its versatile value in fish removal actions.

Its value in ecosystem restoration is appreciated due to its rapid degradation, when exposed to light and warm temperatures, making it a temporary measure with minimal long-term environmental effects, see ''Rotenone and Ecosystem Impact''.

Rotenone is used as a nonselective piscicide (fish killer).<ref>{{cite news
 |url=http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/10/02/BAOHSI41V.DTL
 |title=Lake poisoning seems to have worked to kill invasive pike
 |author=Peter Fimrite
 |newspaper=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]
 |date=2007-10-02
}}</ref> Rotenone has historically been used by [[indigenous peoples]] to catch fish. Typically, rotenone-containing plants in the [[legume]] family, [[Fabaceae]], are crushed and introduced into a body of water, and as rotenone interferes with [[cellular respiration]], the affected fish rise to the surface, where they are more easily caught.

In modern times it is frequently used as a tool to remove [[Introduced species|alien fish species]],<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Rytwinski T, Taylor JJ, Donaldson LA, Britton JR, Browne DR, Gresswell RE, Lintermans M, Prior KA, Pellatt MG, Vis C, Cooke SJ |title=The effectiveness of non-native fish removal techniques in freshwater ecosystems: A systematic review |journal=Environmental Reviews |year=2018 |volume=27 |pages=71–94 |language=English |postscript=, summary in French |doi=10.1139/er-2018-0049 |issue=1|s2cid=92554010 |url=http://eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk/31355/1/Rytwinski%20et%20al_Fish%20removal%20SR_FINAL.pdf }}</ref> as it has a relatively short [[half-life]] (days) and is gone from rivers in the course of days and from lakes within a few months, depending on (seasonal) stirring, [[Organic matter|organic]] content, availability of sunlight and temperature.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Planning and Standard Operating Procedures for the Use of Rotenone in Fish Management – Rotenone SOP Manual |vauthors=Finlayson B, Schnick R, Skaar D, Anderson J, Demong L, Duffield D, Horton W, Steinkjer J |publisher=American Fisheries Society |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-934874-49-3 |edition=2nd |location=Bethesda, Maryland |publication-date=May 2018 |pages= |language=English}}</ref> Rotenone has been used by government agencies to kill fish in rivers and lakes in the United States since 1952,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Peter |date=28 February 2010 |title=One Strange Fish Tale |journal=The Chronicle of Higher Education |url=http://chronicle.com/article/One-Strange-Fish-Tale/64348/ |access-date=24 September 2015}}</ref> and in Canada<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Goldfish management |date=10 January 2023 |url=https://www.rmwb.ca/en/parks-and-recreation/invasive-goldfish-management.aspx#Why-are-we-using-Rotenone}}</ref> and Norway<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mo |first1=TO |title=Har myndighetene lyktes i kampen mot Gyrodactylus salaris? |last2=Holthe |first2=E |last3=Andersen |first3=O |publisher=Norsk institutt for naturforskning, NINA rapport |year=2022 |isbn=978-82-426-4950-8 |issue=2157 |pages=1–62 |language=Norwegian |postscript=, summary in English |type=Report}}</ref> since the 1980s. It is less frequently used in EU countries, due to strict regulations, but has seen some use in selected countries such as the UK ([[Stone moroko|Topmouth gudgeon]]), Sweden ([[Northern pike|pike]] and [[pumpkinseed]]), Spain ([[Stone moroko|Topmouth gudgeon]], [[Gambusia]]) and Hungary ([[Prussian carp]]).

Rotenone has also seen some use in other field studies in the marine environment needing only small quantities. Small-scale sampling with rotenone is used by fish researchers studying the biodiversity of marine fishes to collect cryptic, or hidden, fishes, which represent an important component of shoreline fish communities, since it has only minor, local and transient environmental side effects.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robertson |first1=D. Ross |last2=Smith-Vaniz |first2=William F. |year=2008 |title=Rotenone: An Essential but Demonized Tool for Assessing Marine Fish Diversity |journal=BioScience |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=165 |doi=10.1641/B580211 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Rotenone degradation and ecosystem impact ====
Rotenone primarily affects gilled organisms such as fish and aquatic invertebrates. Terrestrial animals such as birds, mammals, and amphibians (except tadpoles/larvae) are much less affected by rotenone.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Skaar |first1=Donald R. |display-authors=etal |title=Effects of Rotenone on Amphibians and Macroinvertebrates in Yellowstone |url=https://www.nps.gov/articles/effects-of-rotenone-on-amphibians-and-macroinvertebrates-in-yellowstone.htm |publisher=U.S. National Park Service |access-date=29 September 2024 |language=en}}</ref> When applied in freshwater systems, the treatment dose kills the target fish and usually other gilled species like tadpoles and zooplankton are affected, depending on dosage. However, timing treatments in the fall or winter, when many species are less active, can reduce these impacts. Some taxa may also recover through natural life cycles, such as resting eggs. Its use is more benign for the environment (as compared to drying ponds, or using other piscicides), and studies show that most ecosystems naturally recover within one or two years after rotenone application- with aquatic invertebrates repopulating affected areas,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kjærstad |first=Gaute |title=The eradication of invasive species using rotenone and its impact on freshwater macroinvertebrates |publisher=Doctoral theses at NTNU |year=2022 |isbn=978-82-326-6270-8 |location=Trondheim |pages=1–100 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fjellheim |first=A. |year=2004 |title=Virkning av rotenonbehandling på bunndyrsamfunnene I et område ved Stigstu, Hardangervidda |url=http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2630458 |journal=Lfi-122 |language=Norwegian |publisher=LFI, University of Bergen |pages=1–60 |issn=0801-9576 |hdl=11250/2630458}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vinson |first1=V |last2=Dinger |first2=EC |last3=Vinson |first3=DK |year=2010 |title=Piscicides and invertebrates: after 70 years, does anyone really know? |journal=Fisheries |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=61–71 |bibcode=2010Fish...35...61V |doi=10.1577/1548-8446-35.2.61}}</ref> thus restoring initial local biodiversity to its status prior to the introduction of the invasive species.

Rotenone decays through [[metabolite]]s and its final product is reduced to [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=":0" />  It oxidizes to rotenolone, which is about an order of magnitude less toxic than rotenone. In water, the rate of decomposition depends upon several factors, including temperature, pH, water hardness and sunlight. The half-life of rotenone in a pond of 1.1 mean depth ranged from half a day at 24&nbsp;°C to 3.5 days at 0&nbsp;°C,<ref>{{cite web |author=Kevin C. Ott |title=Rotenone. A Brief Review of its Chemistry, Environmental Fate, and the Toxicity of Rotenone Formulations |url=http://www.newmexicotu.org/Rotenone%20summary.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120904171741/http://www.newmexicotu.org/Rotenone%20summary.pdf |archive-date=2012-09-04}}</ref> but in deeper oligotrophic systems (thus less degradation due to sunlight and organic content) the half-life may be considerably longer.

==== Notable administrations as piscicide ====
Norwegian authorities have been using rotenone since the mid-1980s to eradicate the salmon fluke [[Gyrodactylus salaris]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Adolfsen |first=Pål |last2=Bardal |first2=Helge |last3=Aune |first3=Svein |date=2021 |title=Fighting an invasive fish parasite in subarctic Norwegian rivers –  The end of a long story? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3391/mbi.2021.12.3 |journal=Management of Biological Invasions |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=49–65 |doi=10.3391/mbi.2021.12.3 |issn=1989-8649|doi-access=free }}</ref> and as of 2024 48 out of 54 affected river catchments have been treated. Additionally, many lakes and ponds have been rotenone treated in an effort to remove national or regional invasive species, such as [[Northern pike]], [[Common roach|roach]], [[minnow]], [[crucian carp]], [[Tench]] and [[European perch|perch]].<ref>Bardal, H. 2019. Small- and large-scale eradication of invasive fish and fish parasites in freshwater systems in Norway. In: C.R. Veitch, M.N. Clout, A.R. Martin, J.C. Russell, and C.J. West (eds.). Island invasives: scaling up to meet the challenge, pp. 457-451. Occasional paper SSC no. 62. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.</ref>

In 1992, [[Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission]] (FWC) officials used rotenone to eradicate an established population of invasive [[Parachromis managuensis|jaguar cichlids]] from a small pond in [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Miami-Dade County]]. Officials were successful in killing every jaguar cichlid (along with every other fish) in the pond, but unsuccessful in eradicating them from [[Florida]]; the cichlids had already spread throughout the [[Miami Canal]] and its connected [[waterway]]s, and by 1994, jaguar cichlids had successfully established themselves throughout [[Southern Florida|Southern]] and [[Central Florida]].<ref name="Shaffland1996">{{cite journal |last=Shafland |first=Paul L. |date=23 December 2008 |orig-date=1996 |title=Exotic fishes of Florida — 1994 |url=https://files.catbox.moe/7mtmdp.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Reviews in Fisheries Science & Aquaculture |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=101–122 |doi=10.1080/10641269609388581 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424220601/https://files.catbox.moe/7mtmdp.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2024 |access-date=24 April 2024}}</ref>

In September 2010, [[Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife]] officials used rotenone to kill an established population of [[invasive species|invasive]] [[goldfish]] present in eastern Oregon's [[Mann Lake]], with the intention of not disrupting the lake's native [[Lahontan cutthroat trout]] population. Rotenone successfully achieved these aims, killing between 179,000–197,000 goldfish and [[fathead minnow]]s, and only three trout.<ref>{{cite news |last=Monroe |first=Bill |date=December 3, 2010 |title=Mann Lake Gets a Second Round of Rotenone for Cutthroat Restoration |url=http://www.oregonlive.com/sports/oregonian/bill_monroe/index.ssf/2010/12/mann_lake_gets_a_second_round.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424075200/http://www.oregonlive.com/sports/oregonian/bill_monroe/index.ssf/2010/12/mann_lake_gets_a_second_round.html |archive-date=April 24, 2011 |access-date=2012-12-20 |work=The Oregonian |publisher=Oregon Live LLC}}</ref>

Beginning May 1, 2006, [[Panguitch Lake]], a reservoir in the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Utah, was treated with rotenone, to potentially eradicate and control the invasive population of [[Utah chub]], which were probably introduced accidentally by [[Fisherman|anglers]] who used them as [[bait (luring substance)|live bait]]. The lake was restocked with 20,000 [[rainbow trout]] in 2006; as of 2016, the lake's fish population has recovered.

In 2012, rotenone was used to kill all remaining fish in [[Stormy Lake (Alaska)]] due to invasive pike destroying native species, which were reintroduced once the treatment was concluded.<ref>Earl, Elizabeth, [http://peninsulaclarion.com/news/2015-10-07/fish-population-booms-in-stormy-lake Fish population booms in Stormy Lake] [[Peninsula Clarion]], 10/7/2015</ref>
 
In 2014, rotenone was used to kill all remaining fish in San Francisco's Mountain Lake, which is located in [[Mountain Lake Park]], in order to rid it of invasive species introduced since the migration of European settlers to the region.<ref>{{cite web |last=Fimrite |first=Peter |date=12 November 2014 |title=Alien fish poisoned by the thousands to save S.F.'s Mountain Lake |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Workers-pour-poison-into-Mountain-Lake-begin-5888355.php |access-date=24 September 2015 |publisher=SFGate / Hearst}}</ref>

==== Deactivation ====
Rotenone can be deactivated in water with the use of [[potassium permanganate]] to lower toxicity to acceptable levels.<ref>{{citation |author=Donald L Archer |title=Rotenone Neutralization Methods |date=2001 |url=http://www.fisheriessociety.org/rotenone/rewards/01archer.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024940/http://www.fisheriessociety.org/rotenone/rewards/01archer.pdf |archive-date=2017-11-07 |url-status=dead |publisher=American Fisheries Society}}</ref>

=== Use as insecticide ===
Rotenone was commercialized as ''[[Lonchocarpus utilis|cubé]]'', [[Derris elliptica|''tuba'', or ''derris'']], in single preparation or in [[synergy|synergistic]] combination with other insecticides.<ref name="Hayes">{{cite book |author=Hayes W. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sUrLT9z9i3IC&q=rotenone+millettia&pg=PA135 |title=Handbook on Pesticides |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-12-334161-7 |volume=1}}</ref> It has high acute toxicity to mammals,<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 2007 |title=Reregistration Eligibility Decision for Rotenone |url=https://www3.epa.gov/pesticides/chem_search/reg_actions/reregistration/red_PC-071003_31-Mar-07.pdf |access-date=22 October 2024 |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> and all insecticidal uses were banned in the United States and Canada,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20110607121038/http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/pubs/pest/_decisions/rev2008-01/index-eng.php Re-evaluation Note: Rotenone (REV2008-01, 29 January 2008)],{{dead link|date=January 2020}} Consumer Product Safety, Health Canada</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= |first= |date= |title=7 CFR § 205.602 - Nonsynthetic substances prohibited for use in organic crop production |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/7/205.602 |journal=Cornell Law School Legal Information Institute |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref> in the EU,<ref name=":3" /> in the UK,<ref>{{cite web |date=2 October 2008 |title=RHS advice for the garden - Rotenone withdrawal |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/gardeningadvice/3350291/RHS-advice-for-the-garden.html |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Telegraph Gardening}}</ref> and in Switzerland.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Dowle |first=Joanna |date=2 August 2024 |title=How safe are natural insecticides? |url=https://www.epa.govt.nz/community-involvement/science-at-work/how-safe-is-natural-taking-a-look-at-four-plant-based-pesticides-from-natures-arsenal/ |access-date=4 August 2024 |website=Environmental Protection Agency of New Zealand}}</ref> It remains legal as a pesticide in a number of other countries, including Australia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.apvma.gov.au/chemicals-and-products/active-constituents/exempt |title=Active constituents exempt from the requirements of APVMA approval for use in agricultural or veterinary chemical products |access-date=2 December 2024 |website=Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority}}</ref> and New Zealand;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.govt.nz/assets/RecordsAPI/Rotenone_HSR003076.pdf |title=Approval for Rotenone (HSR003076) |website=Environmental Protection Agency of New Zealand |date=30 April 2021 |access-date=2 December 2024}}</ref> the status and effective date of ban in select countries is provided in the table below.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Legal status of rotenone as a pesticide, by country
|-
! Country !! Status !! Ban effective
|-
| Australia || legal || -
|-
| Canada || banned || 31 December 2012
|-
| EU || banned || 10 October 2008
|-
| New Zealand || legal || -
|-
| Switzerland || banned || 1 January 2014
|-
| United Kingdom || banned || 10 October 2008
|-
| United States || banned || 23 March 2011 (EPA); 28 January 2019 (USDA)
|}

Rotenone was used in powdered form to treat [[scabies]] and [[head lice]] on humans, and [[parasitic]] [[mite]]s on [[chickens]], [[livestock]], and [[pet]] animals.

In agriculture it was unselective in action and killed [[potato beetle]]s, [[cucumber beetle]]s, [[flea beetle]]s, [[cabbage worm]]s, [[raspberry beetle]]s, and [[asparagus beetle]]s, as well as most other arthropods. It biodegrades rapidly in soil, with 90% degraded after 1–3 months at {{convert|20|C|F}} and three times faster at {{convert|30|C|F}}.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cavoski |first1=Ivana |last2=Caboni |first2=Pierluigi |last3=Sarais |first3=Giorgia |last4=Miano |first4=Teodoro |date=2008-08-06 |title=Degradation and Persistence of Rotenone in Soils and Influence of Temperature Variations |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |language=EN |volume=56 |issue=17 |pages=8066–8073 |doi=10.1021/jf801461h |pmid=18681442}}</ref> The compound [[Chemical decomposition|decomposes]] when exposed to sunlight and usually has an activity of six days in the environment.<ref name=":2">Vitax Safety Data Sheet for Derris dust, revised October 1998</ref>