Editing Saffron (section)

==Species==
{{Main|Crocus sativus}}

===Description===
[[File:860808-Saffronfarm-01-IMG 7707-2.jpg|alt=Saffron Flowers|thumb|Crocus flowers which yield red saffron stigmas]]
[[File:Saffron onions-IMG 7549-2.jpg|alt=Saffron onions|thumb|Corms]]
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Saffron-62-1160x773.jpg|alt=Saffron harvest|thumb|Several women in traditional clothes are collecting saffron in one of the farms of [[Torbat-e Heydarieh|Torbat Heydarieh]] city of Khorasan Razavi]] -->

The domesticated saffron crocus, ''Crocus sativus'', is an autumn-[[flowering plant|flowering]] [[perennial plant]] unknown in the wild. It possibly descends from the eastern Mediterranean autumn-flowering ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]'' which is also known as "wild saffron"{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=24}} and is native to [[mainland Greece]], [[Euboea]], [[Crete]], [[Skyros]] and some islands of the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="Atticasaffron">{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Niels |last2=Ørgaard |first2=Marian |title=Crocus cartwrightianus on the Attica Peninsula |journal=ISHS Acta Horticulturae |date=2004 |volume=650 |issue=6 |pages=65–69 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2004.650.6 |url=https://safranerio.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/650_6.pdf |access-date=6 April 2024 |ref=Cartwright}}</ref> The similar species ''[[Crocus thomasii|C.&nbsp;thomasii]]'' and ''[[Crocus pallasii|C.&nbsp;pallasii]]'' were considered as other possible ancestors.{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=28}} As a genetically monomorphic clone incapable of seed production, it was slowly propagated by humans throughout much of [[Eurasia]].{{Sfn|Rubio-Moraga|Castillo-López|Gómez-Gómez|Ahrazem|2009}} Various origins have been suggested for saffron, including [[Iran]],<ref name="Ghorbani et al.">{{Cite book |first1=R. |last1=Ghorbani |first2=A. |last2=Koocheki |s2cid=28214061 |chapter=Sustainable Cultivation of Saffron in Iran |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdksDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA170 |title=Sustainable Agriculture Reviews |editor-last=Lichtfouse |editor-first=Eric |year=2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-58679-3 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-58679-3 |pages=170–171|url=https://hal.inrae.fr/hal-02801642/file/Sustainable%20Agriculture%20Reviews%2014%20-%20Front%20Matter_1.pdf }}</ref> [[Greece]],<ref name="Gresta et al.">{{Cite journal|first1=F. |last1=Gresta |first2=G. M. |last2=Lombardo |first3=L. |last3=Siracusa |first4=G. |last4=Ruberto |s2cid=44054590 |year=2008 |title=Saffron, an alternative crop for sustainable agricultural systems. A review |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00886393/document |journal=Agronomy for Sustainable Development |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1051/agro:2007030|bibcode=2008AgSD...28...95G }}</ref> [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Ghorbani et al." /> and [[Kashmir]].<ref name="auto">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1140113593 |title=Saffron : science, technology and health |date=2020 |others=A. Koocheki, Mohammad Khajeh-Hosseini |isbn=978-0-12-818740-1 |location=Duxford, United Kingdom |oclc=1140113593 |access-date=28 March 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119180710/https://www.worldcat.org/title/1140113593 |url-status=live }}</ref>

It is a sterile [[polyploidy|triploid]] form, which means that three homologous sets of [[chromosome]]s make up each specimen's genetic complement; ''C.&nbsp;sativus'' bears eight chromosomal bodies per set, making for 24 in total.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Being sterile, the purple flowers of ''C.&nbsp;sativus'' fail to produce viable seeds; reproduction hinges on human assistance: clusters of [[corm]]s, underground, bulb-like, starch-storing organs, must be dug up, divided, and replanted. A corm survives for one season, producing via vegetative division up to ten "cormlets" that can grow into new plants in the next season.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}} The compact corms are small, brown globules that can measure as large as {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter, have a flat base, and are shrouded in a dense mat of parallel fibres; this coat is referred to as the "corm tunic". Corms also bear vertical fibres, thin and net-like, that grow up to {{Convert|5|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} above the plant's neck.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}

The plant sprouts 5–11 white and non-[[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] leaves known as [[cataphyll]]s. These membrane-like structures cover and protect 5 to 11 true leaves as they bud and develop on the crocus flower. The latter are thin, straight, and blade-like green foliage leaves, which are {{Convert|1|–|3|mm|in|frac=32|abbr=on}}, in diameter, which either expand after the flowers have opened ("hysteranthous") or do so simultaneously with their blooming ("synanthous"). ''C.&nbsp;sativus'' cataphylls are suspected by some to manifest prior to blooming when the plant is irrigated relatively early in the growing season. Its floral axes, or flower-bearing structures, bear [[bract]]eoles, or specialised leaves, that sprout from the flower stems; the latter are known as [[pedicel (botany)|pedicels]].{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} After [[Aestivation (botany)|aestivating]] in spring, the plant sends up its true leaves, each up to {{Convert|40|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in length. Only in October, after most other flowering plants have released their seeds, do its brilliantly hued flowers develop; they range from a light pastel shade of lilac to a darker and more striated mauve.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=3}} The flowers possess a sweet, honey-like fragrance. Upon flowering, the plants are {{Convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in height and bear up to four flowers. A three-pronged [[style (botany)|style]] {{Convert|25|–|30|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}} in length, emerges from each flower. Each prong terminates with a vivid crimson [[stigma (botany)|stigma]], which is the distal end of a [[carpel]].{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}}

===Cultivation===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[File:Iran-MA-20221554-1160x1740.jpg|alt=cleaning Saffron |thumb|An Iranian woman is cleaning saffron.]] -->
The saffron crocus, unknown in the wild, probably descends from ''[[Crocus cartwrightianus]]''. It is a [[polyploid|triploid]] that is "self-incompatible" and male sterile; it undergoes aberrant [[meiosis]] and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction—all propagation is by [[vegetative reproduction|vegetative multiplication]] via manual "divide-and-set" of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=30–31}}{{Sfn|Grilli Caiola|2003|p=1}}

''Crocus sativus'' thrives in the Mediterranean [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]], an ecotype superficially resembling the North American [[chaparral]], and similar climates where hot and dry summer breezes sweep semi-arid lands. It can nonetheless survive cold winters, tolerating frosts as low as {{Convert|−10|C|0}} and short periods of snow cover.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=1}}{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=2–3}} Some reports suggest saffron can tolerate an air temperature range from −22 to 40 °C.<ref>{{Citation |last=Rezvani-Moghaddam |first=Parviz |title=Chapter 8. Ecophysiology of saffron |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128186381000083 |work=Saffron |pages=119–137 |editor-last=Koocheki |editor-first=Alireza |access-date=2023-02-22 |series=Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |language=en |isbn=978-0-12-818638-1 |editor2-last=Khajeh-Hosseini |editor2-first=Mohammad}}</ref> Irrigation is required if grown outside of moist environments such as Kashmir, where annual rainfall averages {{Convert|1000|–|1500|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}; saffron-growing regions in Greece ({{Convert|500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}} annually) and Spain ({{Convert|400|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=or}}) are far drier than the main cultivating Iranian regions. What makes this possible is the timing of the local wet seasons; generous spring rains and drier summers are optimal. Rain immediately preceding flowering boosts saffron yields; rainy or cold weather during flowering promotes disease and reduces yields. Persistently damp and hot conditions harm the crops,{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=2}} and rabbits, rats, and birds cause damage by digging up corms. [[Nematode]]s, leaf [[rust (fungus)|rusts]], and corm rot pose other threats. Yet ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'' inoculation may provide some benefit to growers by speeding corm growth and increasing stigma biomass yield.{{Sfn|Sharaf-Eldin|Elkholy|Fernández|Junge|2008}}

The plants fare poorly in shady conditions; they grow best in full sunlight. Fields that slope towards the sunlight are optimal (i.e., south-sloping in the Northern Hemisphere). Planting is mostly done in June in the Northern Hemisphere, where corms are lodged {{Convert|7|–|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep; its roots, stems, and leaves can develop between October and February.{{Sfn|Kafi et al.|2006|p=23}} Planting depth and corm spacing, in concert with climate, are critical factors in determining yields. Mother corms planted deeper yield higher-quality saffron, though they form fewer flower buds and daughter corms. Italian growers optimise thread yield by planting {{Convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} deep and in rows {{Convert|2|–|3|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} apart; depths of {{Convert|8|–|10|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} optimise flower and corm production. Greek, Moroccan, and Spanish growers employ distinct depths and spacings that suit their locales.

''C.&nbsp;sativus'' prefers friable, loose, low-density, well-watered, and well-drained clay-[[calcareous]] soils with high organic content. Traditional raised beds promote good drainage. Soil organic content was historically boosted via application of some {{Convert|20|–|30|t/ha|ST/acre|0|abbr=off}} of manure. Afterwards, and with no further manure application, corms were planted.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}} After a period of dormancy through the summer, the corms send up their narrow leaves and begin to bud in early autumn. Only in mid-autumn do they flower. Harvests are by necessity a speedy affair: after blossoming at dawn, flowers quickly wilt as the day passes.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|pp=3–4}} All plants bloom within a window of one or two weeks.{{Sfn|Willard|2002|p=4}} Stigmas are dried quickly upon extraction and (preferably) sealed in airtight containers.{{Sfn|Negbi|1999|p=8}}

===Harvesting===
[[File:Saffron-sargol-zafaranic.jpg|thumb|Sargol saffron, the strongest Iranian grade]]
The high retail value of saffron is maintained on world markets because of labour-intensive harvesting methods, which require some {{convert|200000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|stigmas|hand-picked saffron stigmas }} – equivalently, {{convert|70000|/lb|/kg|order=flip|disp=preunit|flowers|crocus flowers }}.<ref name=hooker/><ref name="cnn">{{cite news |last=Monks |first=Keiron |date=3 September 2015 |title=Iran's homegrown treasure: the spice that costs more than gold |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2015/06/03/middleeast/iran-saffron-red-gold/ |newspaper=CNN |access-date=22 January 2016}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hill|2004|p=273}}{{Sfn|Rau|1969|p=35}} Forty hours of labour are needed to pick 150,000 flowers.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lak |first=Daniel |date=11 November 1998 |title=Kashmiris pin hopes on saffron |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/212491.stm |access-date=11 September 2011}}</ref>

One freshly picked crocus flower yields on average 30&nbsp;mg of fresh saffron or 7&nbsp;mg dried; roughly 150 flowers yield {{Convert|1|g|oz|frac=32|abbr=on}} of dry saffron threads; to produce {{Convert|12|g|oz|frac=16|abbr=on}} of dried saffron, {{Convert|1|lb|g|order=flip|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of flowers are needed; the yield of dried spice from fresh saffron is only {{convert|0.2|oz/lb|g/kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.{{Sfn|Deo|2003|p=3}}