Editing Samba (section)

== Roots ==
[[File:Hilário Jovino Ferreira.jpg|thumb|[[Hilário Jovino Ferreira]] founded the first carnival rancho in Rio.|alt=]]

=== Rural tradition ===
During a folkloric research mission in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast Region]] of 1938, the writer [[Mário de Andrade]] noticed that, in rural areas, the term "samba" was associated with the event where the dance was performed, the way of dancing the samba and the music performed for the dance.{{sfn|Carneiro|2005|p=329}} The Urban Carioca Samba was influenced by several traditions associated with the universe of rural communities throughout Brazil.{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=253}} The folklorist Oneida Alvarenga was the first expert to list primitive popular dances of the type: coco, tambor de crioula, [[Lundu (dance)|lundu]], [[Chula (music)|chula]] or fandango, baiano, cateretê, quimbere, mbeque, caxambu and xiba.{{sfn|Alvarenga|1960|pp=130–171}} To this list, Jorge Sabino and Raul Lody added: the samba de coco and the sambada (also called coco de roda), the samba de matuto, the samba de caboclo and the [[jongo]].{{sfn|Sabino|Lody|2011|p=54}}

One of the most important forms of dance in the constitution of the choreography of the Carioca Samba,{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=263}} the [[Samba (Brazilian dance)#Samba de roda|samba de roda]] practiced in Bahia's [[Recôncavo Baiano|Recôncavo]] was typically danced outdoors by a soloist, while other participants of the roda took charge of the singing – alternating in solo and chorus parts{{sfn|Marcondes|1977|p=684}} – and the performance of dance instruments.{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=263}} The three basic steps of Bahian samba de roda were the corta-a-jaca, the separa-o-visgo and the apanha-o-bago, in addition to the little one danced exclusively by women.{{sfn|Marcondes|1977|p=684}} In their research on Bahian samba, Roberto Mendes and Waldomiro Junior examined that some elements from other cultures, such as the [[Pandeiro|Arab pandeiro]] and the Portuguese viola, were gradually incorporated into the singing and rhythm of African batuques, whose most well-known variants were samba corrido and the samba chulado.{{sfn|Mendes|Junior|2008|p=54}}

In the [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo State]], another primitive modality of known rural samba developed, practiced basically in cities along the [[Tietê River]] – from the [[São Paulo]] city, until its middle course{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=250}} – and traditionally divided between samba de bumbo – with only instruments percussion, with bumbo{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=250}} – and batuque de umbigada – with tambu, quinjengue and guaiá.{{sfn|Campolim|2009|p=9}}

Essentially made up of two parts (choir and solo) usually performed on the fly, the [[partido alto]] was – and still is – the most traditional sung variant of rural samba in [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro State]].{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=252}} Originating in the [[Greater Rio de Janeiro]], it is the combination, according to Lopes and Simas, of the Bahian samba de roda with the singing of the calango, as well as a kind of transition between rural samba and what would be developed in the urban environment of Rio from the 20th century.{{sfn|Lopes|Simas|2015|p=252}}

=== Criminalization ===
In its beginnings, Samba was heavily criminalized by the Brazilian government. Born in the [[Favela]]s, it was a distinctly Afro Brazilian musical genre that brought people together in community and celebration, but that, to the Brazilian elite, was threatening. Samba's incorporation of African drumming was thought to be a connection to Afro Brazilian cults.{{sfn|Miranda|2021}}

Many early composers were thought to be leaders of African cults and for this connection, samba faced policed persecution. Any Samba gathering was swiftly shut down, with musicians arrested and their instruments destroyed. As a result, Samba had to go underground; it relied on community members to assume the risk of persecution to have Samba parties out of their homes. Ultimately samba became a hallmark of Brazilian culture, highlighted at [[Brazilian Carnival|Carnival]], but it was not always that way, as in its origins practicing samba was defiance against the government.{{sfn|Galinsky|1996}}
=== Roots of Rio Carnival ===
During colonial Brazil, many public [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] events used to attract all social segments, including Black and enslaved peoples, who took advantage of the celebrations to make their own manifestations, such as the crowning revelry of the Congo kings and the cucumbis (Bantu revelry) in [[Rio de Janeiro]].{{sfn|Abreu|1994|pp=184–185}} Gradually, these exclusive celebrations of the black people were being disconnected from Catholicism ceremonies and changed to the [[Brazilian Carnival]].{{sfn|Lopes|2019|p=110}} From the cucumbis, the "Cariocas cordões" emerged, which presented elements of Brazilianness – like Black people in indigenous dress.{{sfn|Lopes|2019|p=110}} At the end of the 19th century, on the initiative of [[Hilário Jovino Ferreira|Hilário Jovino]], from Pernambuco, ranchos de reis (later known as carnival ranchos) emerged.{{sfn|Lopes|2019|pp=110–111}} One of the most important ranches in Rio's carnival was Ameno Resedá.{{sfn|Lopes|2019|p=111}} Created in 1907, the self-titled "rancho-escola" became a model for carnival performances in procession and for future samba schools born in the hills and suburbs of Rio.{{sfn|Lopes|2019|p=111}}