Editing Santa language (section)

==Phonology==
Compared to other Mongolic languages, there is no [[vowel harmony]], except for a handful of suffixes. However, the rules governing this phenomenon are by far not as strict as those of [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]].{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=155–6}}

===Consonants===
Santa has 29 consonants:{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=37}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
![[Labial consonant|Labial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
![[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
![[Velar consonant|Velar]]
![[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
![[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Plosive]]
!{{small|plain}}
|{{IPA link|p}}
|{{IPA link|t}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|k}}
|{{IPA link|q}}
|
|-
!{{Small|[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]}}
|{{IPA link|pʰ}}
|{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|{{IPA link|qʰ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Fricative]]
!{{Small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
|{{IPA link|f}}
|{{IPA link|s}}
|{{IPA link|ʂ}}
|{{IPA link|ɕ}}
|{{IPA link|x}}
|
|{{IPA link|h}}
|-
!{{Small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|
|({{IPA link|ʐ}})
|
|
|{{IPA link|ʁ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate]]
!{{small|plain}}
|
|({{IPA link|t͡s}})
|{{IPA link|t͡ʂ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ɕ}}
|
|
|
|-
!{{Small|aspirated}}
|
|({{IPA link|t͡sʰ}})
|{{IPA link|t͡ʂʰ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡ɕʰ}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}}
|{{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Approximant]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
|{{IPA link|l}}
|
|{{IPA link|j}}
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
|{{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|
|}

* The aspirated stops {{IPA|/pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, qʰ/}}, at varying degrees, tend to be [[Affricate consonant|affricated]] before [[close vowel]]s as {{IPA|[p͡ɸʰ, t͡θʰ, k͡xʰ, q͡χʰ]}} respectively:{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=38}}
** {{IPA|/qʰ/ → [q͡χʰ]}}: This has the most noticeable affrication, seen in {{lang|sce|ghudogvo}} {{IPA|[q͡χʰutoˈʁo]}} (knife).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=47}}
** {{IPA|/pʰ/ → [p͡ɸʰ]}}: Still commonly affricated, e.g. {{lang|sce|pixie}} {{IPA|[p͡ɸʰi̥ˈɕi̯ɛ]}} (belt).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=46}}
** {{IPA|/tʰ/ → [t͡θʰ]}}: Affrication is salient, but seems to be more apparent with {{IPA|[ɯ]}} than {{IPA|[u]}}, as in {{lang|sce|tiigha}} {{IPA|[t͡θʰɯ̥ˈqɑ]}} (chicken).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=46}}
** {{IPA|/kʰ/ → [k͡xʰ]}}: This consonant is the least affricated, but is still attested in {{lang|sce|kiqie}} {{IPA|[k͡xʰi̥ˈt͡ɕi̯ɛ]}} (to lie down).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=47}}
* Likewise, before non-close vowels non-aspirated stops do not show affrication e.g. {{lang|sce|da}} {{IPA|[tʰɑ]}} (to guess), {{lang|sce|korolon}} {{IPA|[kʰoroˈlõŋ]}} (footprint), or {{lang|sce|khalun}} {{IPA|[qʰɑˈlũŋ]}} (hot).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=38}}
* Phonemes {{IPA|/t͡sʰ, t͡s, ʐ/}} are only found in loanwords:
** {{IPA|/t͡sʰ/}} is only found in Chinese-derived words, as in {{lang|sce|cai}} {{IPA|/t͡sʰɑj/}} (vegetable; from Chinese {{lang|zh|菜}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|cài}}). It is frequently deaffricated to the native {{IPA|[s]}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=48}}
** {{IPA|/t͡s/}} is found within Chinese and Persian borrowings, with Persian {{lang|fa|زمین}} {{lang|fa-Latn|zamin}} (earth) rendered as {{lang|sce|zemin}} {{IPA|/t͡səˈmi(ŋ)/}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=48}}
** {{IPA|/ʐ/}} in the same way is seen in words of Chinese and Arabic origin, as in {{lang|sce|renshen}} {{IPA|/ʐəŋˈʂəŋ/}} (ginseng; Chinese {{lang|zh|人參}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|rénshēn}}).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=50}}
* The nasals {{IPA|/n, ŋ/}} assimilate to {{IPA|[m]}} before labials, as in {{lang|sce|unba}}  {{IPA|/unˈpɑ/ → [ũmˈpɑ]}} (to swim) and {{lang|sce|banban}} {{IPA|/pɑŋˈpɑŋ/ → [pɑ̃mˈpɑ̃ŋ]}} (cudgel) respectively. {{IPA|/ŋ/}} also has another allophone {{IPAblink|ɴ}} before uvulars, cf. {{lang|sce|zhangha}} {{IPA|/t͡ʂɑŋˈqɑ/ → [t͡ʂɑ̃ɴˈqɑ]}} (walnut).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=50}}
* Nasals are commonly [[Deletion (phonology)|deleted]] in the coda, which is an areal feature around the border between [[Gansu]] and [[Qinghai]]. Although it is not restricted to word-final situations, it is rarer to find deletion there as the following consonantal onsets somehow reinforce the nasal. It should also be noted that vowels preceding nasal consonants are also [[Nasal vowel|nasalized]] themselves.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=43}}
* The central approximants {{IPA|/j, w/}} are fricativized {{IPA|[{{IPA link|ʝ}}, {{IPA link|v}}]}} when syllable-initial, mainly before close vowels. {{IPA|/w/}} can further be found before front vowels and even low back vowels. An example of fricatization for each is {{lang|sce|yibai}} {{IPA|[ˈʝipɛi̯]}} (one hundred) and {{lang|sce|weila}} {{IPA|[və̝i̯ˈlɑ]}} (to cry).{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=39, 51}} This phenomenon can also be found in neighboring languages, including [[Dungan language|Dungan]] and [[Monguor language|Monguor]].{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=39}} 
* {{IPA|/ʁ/}}, which is usually realized as a fricative, can be pronounced as an approximant {{IPA|[ʁ̞]}} in fast speech.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=50}}
* {{IPA|/r/}} is usually a trill, and length is dependent on the speed of speech; similarly in rapid speech it can become a tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=51}}

===Vowels===
Dongxiang has 7 vowels.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=37}} Unlike other neighboring Mongolic languages, it has limited [[vowel harmony]] and no distinctions of [[vowel length]].{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=155–6}}
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Front
! colspan="2" |Central
! colspan="2" |Back
|-
!{{Small|plain}}
!{{Small|[[rhotacism|rhotacised]]}}
!{{Small|unrounded}}
!{{Small|rounded}}
|-
!Close
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɯ}}
|{{IPA link|u}}
|-
!Mid
|
|{{IPA link|ə}}
|{{IPA link|ɚ}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
!Open
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɑ}}
|
|}

* {{IPA|/i/}}, which is usually a close front vowel, has a backened allophone {{IPAblink|ɨ}} after retroflex consonants, and a slightly opened one {{IPAblink|ɪ}} after alveolar affricates and fricatives. Compare {{lang|sce|chi}} {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰɨ]}} (you [2nd sing.]) with {{lang|sce|misi}} {{IPA|[miˈsɪ]}} (to fly).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=52}}
* Close vowels are devoiced when in an unstressed initial syllable and between voiceless consonants, for example: {{lang|sce|chighin}} {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰɨ̥ˈqə̃ŋ]}} (ear), {{lang|sce|sidara}} {{IPA|[sɪ̥tɑˈrɑ]}} (to catch fire) and {{lang|sce|khidun}} {{IPA|[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈtũŋ]}} (hard). This is not the case though before a voiced consonant, especially if it is of native Mongolic origin, as evidenced with {{lang|sce|chila}} {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰɨˈlɑ]}} (to be exhausted) and {{lang|sce|suma}} {{IPA|[suˈmɑ]}} (arrow).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=45}}
** In Chinese loans, devoicing is optional, i.e. {{lang|sce|chugui}} (cupboard; from {{lang|zh|櫥櫃}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|chúguì}}) can be pronounced either {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰ'''u̥'''ˈku̯ə̝i̯]}} or {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰ'''u'''ˈku̯ə̝i̯]}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=45}}
** The mid-central vowel {{IPA|/ə/}} has also been recorded voiceless in the aforementioned environment: {{lang|sce|pese}} {{IPA|[pʰə̥ˈsɛ]}} (again).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=45}}
** Devoicing of {{IPA|/i/}} can also occur regardless of the following sound and in non-initial syllables, under the condition it occurs after {{IPA|/s/}}: {{lang|sce|basi}} {{IPA|[ˈpɑsɪ̥]}} (tiger) or {{lang|sce|kewosila}} {{IPA|[kʰəˌwɑsɪ̥ˈlɑ]}} (children). Interestingly, it is not often the case, as in {{lang|sce|bositu}} {{IPA|[pʷosɪˈtʰu]}} (pregnant).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=45}}
* {{IPA|/ɚ/}} is always a syllabified as its own, as in {{lang|sce|ershi}} {{IPA|[ɚ.ʂɨ]}} (twenty), with the exception of one Arabic loanword with glottal {{IPA|/h/}} as the onset: {{lang|sce|ruhher}} {{IPA|[ʐu.hɚ]}} (spirit; from {{lang|ar|رُوح}} {{lang|ar-Latn|rūḥ}}).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=53}}
* {{IPA|/o/}} is often pronounced with a considerable degree of labialization {{IPA|[ʷo]}}, however this can be inconsistent, even in the same utterance; cf. {{lang|sce|olien}} {{IPA|[ʷoˈli̯ɛ̃n]}} (cloud) vs. {{lang|sce|onghono}} {{IPA|[õɴqõˈno]}} (to shout).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=53}}
* When stressed, {{IPA|/ə/}} is typically realized as mid-front {{IPAblink|ɛ}}: {{lang|sce|enzhegve}} {{IPA|[ə̃nt͡ʂəˈʁɛ]}} (donkey). Before {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, {{IPAblink|ɤ}} is used instead: {{lang|sce|amen}} {{IPA|[ɑˈmɤ̃ŋ]}} (rice). Otherwise in unstressed syllables it is mid-central {{IPA|[ə]}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=53}}
* {{IPA|[ɑ]}} is typically an open back vowel, e.g. {{lang|sce|apa}} {{IPA|[ɑˈpʰɑ]}} (barley), but before alveolar nasals it is fronted to {{IPAblink|æ}}; an example is {{lang|sce|dan}} {{IPA|[tæ̃n]}} (carrying pole with loads). Before velar nasals, as in {{lang|sce|dan}} {{IPA|[tɑ̃ŋ]}} ([political] party), the back form is used.{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=43, 54}}

====Glides====
Although true diphthongal sequences (i.e. complex vowel combinations) do not exist in Santa, combinations with the vowels {{IPA|/u, ə, ɑ/}} and the [[Semivowel|glides]] {{IPA|/j, w/}} do.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=54}} The glides are phonetically realized as non-syllabic vowels {{IPA|[i̯, u̯]}} and the vowels have the following phonetic realizations below, regardless of any previous allophonic rules as mentioned above.{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=55–57}}

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Glide/vowel combinations{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=54–57}}
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |Vowel + Glide
! rowspan="2" |Glide + Vowel
! colspan="2" |Additional
|-
!{{IPA|/j/}}
!{{IPA|/w/}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/u/}}
!{{IPA|/j/}}
|—
|{{IPA|/ju/}}
|—
|—
|-
!{{IPA|/w/}}
|—
|—
|—
|—
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ə/}}
!{{IPA|/j/}}
|{{IPA|/əj/}}
|{{IPA|/jə/}}
|—
|—
|-
!{{IPA|/w/}}
|{{IPA|/əw/}}
|—
|{{IPA|/wəj/}}
|—
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{IPA|/ɑ/}}
!{{IPA|/j/}}
|{{IPA|/ɑj/}}
|{{IPA|/jɑ/}}
|—
|{{IPA|/jɑw/}}
|-
!{{IPA|/w/}}
|{{IPA|/ɑw/}}
|{{IPA|/wɑ/}}
|{{IPA|/wɑj/}}
|—
|}

Distinct phonetic vowel realizations (note that vowels in other environments take the [[Cardinal vowels|cardinal]] form):
* {{IPA|/ə/}}:
** Before {{IPA|/j/}}, the vowel is [[Relative articulation|raised]] to {{IPA|[ə̝]}}, e.g. {{lang|sce|khighei}} {{IPA|[q͡χʰɯ̥ˈqə̝i̯]}} (pig), falling somewhere in between {{IPA|[ə]}} and {{IPA|[i]}}.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=55}}
*** If also after {{IPA|/w/}}, the vowel is optionally dropped, as in {{lang|sce|ghuilu}} {{IPA|[qu̯(ə̝)i̯ˈlu]}} (to become).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=56}}
** After {{IPA|/j/}}, it is pronounced like stressed {{IPA|[ɛ]}}; for instance {{lang|sce|nie}} {{IPA|[ni̯ɛ]}} (one) or {{lang|sce|bierei}} {{IPA|[pi̯ɛˈri]}} (wife).{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=53, 55}}
** Before {{IPA|/w/}}, backness is often applied so that it varies between {{IPA|[ə~ɤ]}}: {{lang|sce|hotou}} {{IPA|[xʷoˈtəu̯~xʷoˈtɤu̯]}} (maggot).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=55}}
* {{IPA|/ɑ/}}:
** Before {{IPA|/j/}}, it may be raised, varying from {{IPA|[ɑ~ɛ]}}, see {{lang|sce|bai}} {{IPA|[pɑi̯~pɛi̯]}} (to stop), {{lang|sce|kuaisun}} {{IPA|[kʰu̯ɑi̯ˈsũŋ~kʰu̯ɛi̯ˈsũŋ]}} (navel).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=55}}
** Before {{IPA|/w/}}, the vowel is often raised and backed, ranging from {{IPA|[ɑ~o]}} in {{lang|sce|nao}} {{IPA|[nɑu̯~nou̯]}} (to hit the mark), {{lang|sce|oqiao}} {{IPA|[ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ɑu̯~ʷoˈt͡ɕʰi̯ou̯]}} (old).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=55, 56}}

===Phonotactics===
The general syllable template for Santa is (C)(G)V(G/N), where the brackets represent optional phonemes. C represents any consonant apart from {{IPA|/ŋ/}} or a glide, G is one of the glides {{IPA|/j, w/}}, V is a vowel and G/N is either a glide or a nasal  {{IPA|/n, ŋ/}} (occasionally also {{IPA|/r/}}).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=59}} However, there are further constraints to this scheme:

* The [[obstruent]]s {{IPA|/pʰ, qʰ, f, x, h/}} in words of Monogolic origin can only be found at the beginning of words.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=61}}
* Also, {{IPA|/ɕ/}} can occur at any position syllable-initially, but not after nasals of glides.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=61}}
* {{IPA|/r, ʁ/}} on the other hand can only occur after vowels. It is also possible for {{IPA|/ʁ/}} to occur after nasals, but not {{IPA|/r/}} due to the sonorant rule.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=61}}
* {{IPA|/ʂ, ɕ, t͡ɕ, m/}} can occur word-initially but between syllables only after vowels.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=61}}
* It is impossible for non-compounded words of Mongolic origin for a [[sonorant]] (with the exception of the glide {{IPA|[i̯]}}) to follow a nasal after a syllable boundary. However, three exceptions exist: {{lang|sce|manlou}} {{IPA|[mɑ̃ŋˈləu̯]}} (forehead), {{lang|sce|danlei}} {{IPA|[tæ̃nˈləi̯]}} (palate) and {{lang|sce|chanlie}} {{IPA|[t͡ʂʰæ̃nˈli̯ə]}} (to listen).{{sfnp|Field|1997|pp=39–40}}
** Words borrowed from Mandarin Chinese do not follow this rule, seen with {{lang|sce|rinmin}} {{IPA|[ʐəŋˈmin]}} (people; from {{lang|zh|人民}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|rénmín}}).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=40}}

===Stress=== <!-- FIXME -->
The majority of words in Santa are stressed on the final syllable. Examples include {{lang|sce|yawu}} {{IPA|/jɑˈwu/}} (to walk), {{lang|sce|funiegvan}} {{IPA|/funjəˈʁɑŋ/}} (fox) and {{lang|sce|agven}} {{IPA|/ɑˈʁəŋ/}} (village). Stress also shifts to the suffix when added to a word: {{lang|sce|funiegvan-ni}} {{IPA|/funjəʁɑŋˈni/}} (fox, genitive case), {{lang|sce|agven-de}} {{IPA|/ɑʁəŋˈdə/}} (village, locative case).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=151}}

However, several exceptions to this rule exist:
* Certain suffix clitics prevent the stress from shifting to the final syllable, as seen in {{lang|sce|2=yawu=ne}} {{IPA|/jɑˈwunə/}} (walk!, imperative), {{lang|sce|2=tomo=ghala}} {{IPA|/tʰoˈmoqɑlɑ/}} (hammer, instrumental). However, not every clitic follows this rule.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=151}}
* The suffixes {{lang|sce|+jiwo}} and {{lang|sce|+senu}} receive [[penult]]imate stress: {{lang|sce|jawu+jiwo}} {{IPA|/jɑwuˈt͡ʂiwo/}} (to walk, progressive) and {{lang|sce|ire+senu}} {{IPA|/irəˈsənu/}} (as soon as one comes).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=152}}
* Similarly, {{lang|sce|basi}} {{IPA|/ˈpɑsi/}} (tiger) and {{lang|sce|bosi}} {{IPA|/ˈposi/}} (cloth) are stressed on the initial syllable. There is a minimal pair with {{lang|sce|bosi}} where the stress on the final syllable ({{IPA|/poˈsi/}})means 'to wake up'.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=152}}
* Loanwords may also violate the final stress rule; this is discussed below.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=152}}

====In loanwords====
In Chinese loanwords, stress is not predictable; this is likely due to the tonal influence from the original pronunciation. However, these tones are based on the dialects of the [[Hui people]] rather than the [[Standard Chinese|standard dialect]]. Examples of non-final stress include {{lang|sce|hushi}} {{IPA|/ˈxuʂi/}} (nurse; from {{lang|zh|护士}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|hùshì}}), {{lang|sce|daozi}} {{IPA|/ˈdɑwt͡si/}} (rice paddy; from {{lang|zh|稻子}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|dàozi}}) and {{lang|sce|dadou}} {{IPA|/ˈdɑdəw/}} (soybean; from {{lang|zh|大豆}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|dàdòu}}). [[Minimal pair]]s, though uncommon, also exist. One example is {{lang|sce|shizi}} {{IPA|/ˈʂit͡si/}} (persimmon; from {{lang|zh|柿子}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|shìzi}}) and {{lang|sce|shizi}} {{IPA|/ʂiˈt͡si/}} (lion; from {{lang|zh|狮子}} {{lang|zh-Latn-pinyin|shīzi}}).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=154}}

There are a number of Arabic loanwords which also violate ultimate stress; these include {{lang|sce|aghili}} {{IPA|/ˈɑqili/}} (wisdom; from {{lang|ar|عَقِيْل}} {{lang|ar-Latn|ʿaqīl}}), {{lang|sce|mehheri}} {{IPA|/ˈməhəri/}} (dowry; from {{lang|ar|مَهْر⁩}} {{lang|ar-Latn|mahr}}), {{lang|sce|ghalebu}} {{IPA|/qɑˈləbu/}} (body, form; from {{lang|ar|قَالَب⁩}} {{lang|ar-Latn|qālab}}), etc.{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=153}}

Some words with unknown origin may also stress on other syllables, including {{lang|sce|tonghori}} {{IPA|/ˈtʰoŋqori/}} (wild goose), {{lang|sce|dawala}} {{IPA|/ˈtɑwɑlɑ/}} (urinary bladder) and {{lang|sce|bawa}} {{IPA|/ˈpɑwɑ/}} (great-grandfather).{{sfnp|Field|1997|p=153}}