Editing Saudi Arabia (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Saudi Arabia}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Pergamon-Museum - Anthropomorphe Stele 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Anthropomorphic stela (4th millennium BC), sandstone, 57x27 cm, from El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa ([[National Museum of Saudi Arabia]], [[Riyadh]])]]

There is evidence that human habitation in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] dates back to about {{gaps|125|000}} years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |title=Early human migration written in stone tools : Nature News |journal=Nature |date=27 January 2011 |doi=10.1038/news.2011.55 |last1=Callaway |first1=Ewen |access-date=25 November 2016 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405065926/http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |url-status=live | issn = 0028-0836 }}</ref> A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left [[Africa]] about {{gaps|75|000}} years ago across the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] connecting the [[Horn of Africa]] and Arabia.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hints Of Earlier Human Exit From Africa |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6016 |pages=453–456 |doi=10.1126/science.1199113 |pmid=21273486 |publisher=Science News |year=2011 |last1=Armitage |first1=S. J. |last2=Jasim |first2=S. A. |last3=Marks |first3=A. E. |last4=Parker |first4=A. G. |last5=Usik |first5=V. I. |last6=Uerpmann |first6=H.-P. |bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A |s2cid=20296624 }}</ref> The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the [[Quaternary]] that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich [[Lower Paleolithic]] record, and the quantity of [[Oldowan]]-like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia.<ref>{{citation|last=Mirazon Lahr, M.|year=2010|title=Out of Africa I: The First Hominim Colonization of Eurasia|editor1=Fleagle, J.G.|display-editors=etal|chapter=Saharan Corridors and their role in the Evolutionary Geography of ‘Out of Africa I’|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-9035-5|pages=27–46|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143727/https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q=%22Given%20that%C2%A0there%20is%C2%A0undisputed%20evidence%20of%20hominins%20in%20Eurasia%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[Neolithic]] period, prominent cultures such as [[Al-Magar]], whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar//|title=Al Magar – Paleolithic & Neolithic History|website=paleolithic-neolithic.com|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817112321/http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sylvia|first1=Smith|title=Desert finds challenge horse taming ideas|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|access-date=13 November 2016|publisher=BCC|date=26 February 2013|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814053949/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=John|first1=Henzell|title=Carved in stone: were the Arabs the first to tame the horse?|url=http://www.thenational.ae/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse|access-date=12 November 2016|agency=thenational|publisher=thenational|date=11 March 2013|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713185744/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse-1.655413/|url-status=live}}</ref> Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-08-27 |title=Discovery points to roots of arabian breed – Features |url=https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=Horsetalk.co.nz |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519055638/https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the [[Canaan Dog]]) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than {{gaps|8|000}} years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|title=These may be the world's first images of dogsand they're wearing leashes|magazine=Science Magazine|first=David|last=Grimm|date=16 November 2017|access-date=18 June 2018|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104080835/https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the [[Bronze Age]]; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2&nbsp;m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.<ref>طرق التجارة القديمة، روائع آثار المملكة العربية السعودية pp. 156–157</ref>

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a {{gaps|350|000}}-year-old [[Acheulean]] site named An Nasim in the [[Ḥaʼil Province|Hail region]] could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. 354 artefacts, including hand axes and stone tools, provided information about the tool-making traditions of the earliest living man who inhabited southwest Asia. [[Paleolithic]] artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the [[An Nafud|Nefud Desert]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scerri|first1=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Frouin|first2=Marine|last3=Breeze|first3=Paul S.|last4=Armitage|first4=Simon J.|last5=Candy|first5=Ian|last6=Groucutt|first6=Huw S.|last7=Drake|first7=Nick|last8=Parton|first8=Ash|last9=White|first9=Tom S.|last10=Alsharekh|first10=Abdullah M.|last11=Petraglia|first11=Michael D.|date=2021-05-12|title=The expansion of Acheulean hominins into the Nefud Desert of Arabia|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=10111|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89489-6|pmid=33980918|pmc=8115331|bibcode=2021NatSR..1110111S|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-12|title=Saudi Arabia discovers new archaeological site dating back to 350,000 years|url=http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Saudigazette|language=English|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125158/https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-13|title=Saudi Arabia discovers a 350,000-year-old archaeological site in Hail|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|access-date=2021-05-17|website=The National|language=en|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125138/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ancient site in Nefud Desert offers glimpse of early human activity in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/amp|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Arab News|language=en|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513063910/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pre-Islamic ===
{{main|Pre-Islamic Arabia}}
[[File:Statue at National Museum of Korea.jpg|thumb|upright|The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BC), above {{convert|1|m|spell=in}} in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of the [[National Museum of Korea]].<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180">Roads of Arabia p. 180</ref>]]

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the [[Ubaid period]] at [[Dosariyah]]. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.<ref>Roads of Arabia p. 176.</ref> The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of [[Dilmun]] in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from [[Uruk]] refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that [[Tarout Island]] was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" /> Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" />

By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180"/>

[[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|thumb|left|''Qaṣr Al-Farīd'', the largest of the 131 [[Rock cut architecture|rock-cut]] monumental tombs built from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD, with their elaborately ornamented façades, at the extensive ancient [[Nabatean]] archaeological site of [[Hegra (Mada'in Salih)|Hegra]] located in the area of [[Al-'Ula]] within [[Al Madinah Region]] in the [[Hejaz]]. A UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] since 2008.]]

By the late [[Bronze Age]], a historically recorded people and land ([[Midian]] and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabouk]], it stretched from [[Wadi Arabah]] in the north to the area of al-Wejh in the south.<ref>Koenig 1971; Payne 1983: Briggs 2009</ref> The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,<ref name="ArnoldStrawn2016">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462 The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143857/https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Baker Publishing Group; 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-4934-0574-9}} p. 462.</ref> it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Coogan2001">Michael D. Coogan. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110 The Oxford History of the Biblical World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143909/https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Oxford University Press; 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-19-988148-2}}. p. 110.</ref> The Bible recounts [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]]'s [[Midian war|two wars]] with Midian, somewhere in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements.<ref>Knauf, 1988</ref> It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name="Midian p. 163">Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia p. 163.</ref> The nomadic [[Midianites]] were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.<ref name="Midian p. 163" />

[[File:Statue of a man at National Museum of Korea 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Colossal statue from [[Al-'Ula]] in the [[Hejaz]] (6th–4th century BC), it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the [[Lihyan]]ite kingdom. The original statue was painted with white. ([[Louvre|Louvre Museum]], [[Paris]])<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farag |first=Mona |date=2022-09-07 |title=Louvre Museum in Paris to display Saudi Arabia's ancient AlUla statue |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924152322/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of [[Lihyan]].<ref name="Lihyan p. 192">The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective – p. 192</ref><ref>J. Schiettecatte: [https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196/ The political map of Arabia and the Middle East in the third century AD revealed by a Sabaean inscription] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709184656/https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196 |date=9 July 2023 }} – p. 183</ref> During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.<ref name="Lihyan p. 192" /> In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.<ref>The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective</ref> The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from [[Medina|Yathrib]] in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|date=19 September 2017|website=Saudi Arabia Tourism Guide|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120022655/http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|url-status=live}}</ref> In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.<ref name="HiltonHilton1996">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 Discovering Lehi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143724/https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Cedar Fort; 1996. {{ISBN|978-1-4621-2638-5}}. p. 153.</ref>

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the [[Nabataeans]] around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to [[Tayma]], and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the [[Roman Empire]], which renamed it [[Arabia Petraea]], and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Petra|publisher=Aurum Press Ltd|year=2005|isbn=978-9957-451-04-2|location=London|pages=25–31}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages and rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Caliphate}}
[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|thumb|left|At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750) covered {{cvt|11100000|km2|sqmi|-5|comma=gaps}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=475–504 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population),<ref name=Blankinship>{{citation |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |year=1994 |title=The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7 |page=37 }}</ref> making it one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]] in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.]]

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rise of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord |url-access=registration |first=Matthew |last=Gordon |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32522-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/4 4]|publisher=Greenwood Publishing }}</ref> The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 [[Common Era|CE]]. In the early 7th century, [[Muhammad]] united the [[Tribes of Arabia|various tribes of the peninsula]] and created a single Islamic religious polity.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33">{{cite book |last=Lindsay |first=James E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 |title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32270-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 33]}}</ref> Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.<ref name="Abbas">{{cite book |last=Abbas |first=Tahir |author-link= |date=March 2011 |title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |page= |chapter=Preface and Introduction |isbn=9781136959592 |quote=The unprecedented initial expansion of Islam led to half of the known world being conquered with huge swathes of territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328014315/https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Reichl">{{cite book |editor-last=Reichl |editor-first=Karl |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Medieval Oral Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |location= |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |page=633 |isbn=9783110241129 |quote=With the unprecedented victorious spread of Islam within only a few years over a huge territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143858/https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Barber">{{cite book |last= Barber|first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Barber |date=August 2, 2012 |title=The Crusader States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC |location= |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page= |chapter=Chapter 2: Syria and Palestine |isbn= 9780300189315 |quote=After his [Muhammad's] death in 632, his successors, driven by what had become a dynamic new religion, committed themselves to an unprecedented territorial expansion.}}</ref> Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33" />

[[Arab]]s originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the [[Hejaz]] in particular, founded the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] (632–661), [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750), [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (750–1517), and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the [[Sharif of Mecca]], but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]] or [[Istanbul]]. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.<ref name="Britannica history">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |title=History of Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503091224/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The changing map of Asia |author=William Gordon East |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-416-16850-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 75–76] |publisher=Methuen |url=https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 }}</ref>

[[File:Siyer-i Nebi - Imam Ali und Hamza bei dem vorgezogenen Einzelkampf in Badr gegen die Götzendiener.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Badr]], 13 March 624 CE]]
For much of the 10th century, the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]]-Shi'ite [[Qarmatians]] were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the [[Black Stone]].<ref>Glassé, Cyril (2008). ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam''. Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press p. 369</ref> In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named [[Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni]] defeated the Qarmatians in [[Eastern Arabia|Bahrain]] and [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Hasa]] with the help of the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq Empire]] and founded the [[Uyunid dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Gulf States: A Modern History|year=2012|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-278-5|page=28}}</ref><ref>C.E. Bosworth, ''The New Islamic Dynasties'', (Columbia University Press, 1996), 94–95.</ref> The [[Uyunid Emirate]] later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the [[Syrian Desert]].<ref name="Safa Khulusi">{{Cite journal |last=Khulusi |first=Safa |author-link=Safa Khulusi |volume=6 |pages=91–102 |jstor=41223173 |year=1975 |title=A Thirteenth Century Poet from Bahrain |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies }} {{Registration required}}</ref> They were overthrown by the [[Usfurids]] in 1253.<ref>Joseph Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'', Taylor and Francis, 2006, p. 95</ref> Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of [[Ormus|Hormuz]] captured Bahrain and [[Qatif]] in 1320.<ref>Curtis E. Larsen. ''Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society'' University Of Chicago Press, 1984 pp66-8</ref> The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia [[Jarwanid dynasty]] came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.<ref name=JuanCole>{{Cite book |author=Juan Ricardo Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |title=Sacred space and holy war: the politics, culture and history of Shi'ite Islam |page=35 |year=2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |access-date=27 September 2017 |isbn=978-1-86064-736-9 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144403/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222053120/http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|title=Arabia|archive-date=22 February 2012}}</ref> The [[Jabrids]] took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay [[tribute]] in 1507.<ref name=JuanCole /> [[Al-Muntafiq]] tribe later took over the region and came under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[suzerainty]]. The [[Bani Khalid (tribe)|Bani Khalid tribe]] later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.<ref>Zāmil Muḥammad al-Rashīd. ''Suʻūdī relations with eastern Arabia and ʻUmān, 1800–1870'' Luzac and Company, 1981 pp. 21–31</ref> Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.<ref>Yitzhak Nakash (2011)[https://books.google.com/books?id=a43C-4RKGcgC&pg=PA21 Reaching for Power: The Shi'a in the Modern Arab World] p. 22</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 "Arabia, history of."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829110204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 |date=29 August 2006 }} Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 November 2007.</ref>

=== Ottoman Hejaz and Portuguese era ===
{{Main|Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia|Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts|Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations}}

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, [[Aseer]] and [[Eastern Arabia|Al-Ahsa]]) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to [[Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)|thwart Portuguese attempts]] to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Bernstein">Bernstein, William J. (2008) ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. Grove Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 pp. 191 ff] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807000647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 |date=7 August 2023 }}</ref> The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 2 |author=Chatterji, Nikshoy C. |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-391-00304-0 |page=168|publisher=Abhinav Publications }}</ref>{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=68}} These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the [[Occupation of Ma'an|inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an]], including the cities of [[Ma'an]] and [[Aqaba]].

=== Saud dynasty and unification ===
{{See also|Unification of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:The First Saudi State Greatest Extent.png|thumb|Expansion of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|first Saudi State]] in 1810|left]]
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of [[Diriyah]] in [[Nejd]] in central Arabia with the accession as [[emir]] of [[Muhammad bin Saud]] on 22 February 1727.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-27|title=Saudi Arabia to commemorate 'Founding Day' on Feb. 22 annually: Royal order|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001180301/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Kingdom {{!}} kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Ministry of Foreign Affairs|url=https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|access-date=2022-02-15|website=www.mofa.gov.sa|archive-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302002523/https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]],{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=69–70}} founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.<ref>{{cite book |title=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide |first1=Ian |last1=Harris |first2=Stuart|last2=Mews|first3=Paul|last3=Morris|first4= John |last4= Shepherd |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-582-08695-1 |page=369|publisher=Longman }}</ref> This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Future of Islam in the Middle East |first=Mahmud A. |last=Faksh |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-275-95128-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 89–90] |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |url=https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 }}</ref>

The [[Emirate of Diriyah]] established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sacking Karbala]] in 1802, and [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|capturing Mecca]] in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohammed Ali Pasha]].<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316131703/http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |date=16 March 2017 }}". Library of Congress Country Studies.</ref> The much smaller [[Emirate of Nejd]] was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the [[Rashidi dynasty|Al Rashid]], who ruled the [[Emirate of Jabal Shammar]]. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.<ref name="Britannica history"/>

[[File:Churchill and King Abd al-Aziz of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Ibn Saud]], the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia, in [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] in 1945]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,<ref name= Murphy>{{cite book |title=The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze |first=David |last=Murphy |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-339-1 |pages=5–8|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Politics in an Arabian Oasis: The Rashidis of Saudi Arabia |author=Madawi Al Rasheed |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86064-193-0 |page=81|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref> with the [[Sharif of Mecca]] having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics |first=Ewan W. |last=Anderson |author2=William Bayne Fisher |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-07667-8 |page=106|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> In 1902, [[Abdul Rahman bin Faisal|Abdul Rahman]]'s son, Abdulaziz—later known as [[Ibn Saud]]—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the [[Emirate of Nejd and Hasa|third "Saudi state"]].<ref name="Britannica history" /> Ibn Saud gained the support of the [[Ikhwan]], a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by [[Faisal Al-Dawish]], and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World |author=R. Hrair Dekmejian |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8156-2635-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 131] |publisher=Syracuse University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 }}</ref> With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] (which was fighting the Ottomans in [[World War I]]), the Sharif of Mecca, [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]], led a pan-[[Arab Revolt]] against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of World War I |first=Spencer |last=Tucker |author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=205 |isbn=978-1-85109-420-2 |page=565|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> Although the revolt failed in its objective, [[Allies of World War I|the Allied]] victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became [[Kingdom of Hejaz|King of Hejaz]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |first=Albert |last=Hourani |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-571-22664-1 |pages=315–319|publisher=Faber & Faber }}</ref>

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title [[Sultanate of Nejd|Sultan of Nejd]] in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |first1=James |last1=Wynbrandt |first2=Fawaz A. |last2=Gerges |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-7876-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 182] |publisher=Infobase |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 }}</ref> For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.<ref name="Britannica history" />

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the [[Battle of Sabilla]], where their leaders were massacred.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inside the Kingdom |first=Robert |last=Lacey |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-09-953905-6 |pages=15–16|publisher=Arrow }}</ref> On Ibn Saud's behalf, [[Faisal bin Abdulaziz al Saud|Prince Faisal]] declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Britannica history" /> That date is now a national holiday called [[Saudi National Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |title=History of Saudi Arabia. ( The Saudi National Day 23, Sep ) |website=Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=6 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206142313/https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
{{Main|Modern history of Saudi Arabia}}
[[File:Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938.jpg|thumb|The oil well ''[[Dammam No. 7]]'' on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so]]
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.<ref>{{cite book |title=Afluence and Poverty in the Middle East |author=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy |author-link=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-10033-5 |page=56|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Dammam No. 7|In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered]] in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company)]]. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.<ref name="Britannica history" /> Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of [[foreign workers in Saudi Arabia]] in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for [[xenophobia]]. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1953, [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.<ref name="BBC timeline">{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |title= Saudi Arabia profile - Timeline |author= <!--Not stated--> |date= 4 October 2019 |website= bbc.com |publisher= [[BBC News]] |access-date= 21 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 29 September 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230929075327/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |url-status= live }}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an [[1973 oil crisis|oil boycott]] against the Western countries that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince [[Faisal bin Musaid]] and was succeeded by his half-brother [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]].<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 136–137</ref>[[File:Nasser_and_Faisal.jpg|alt=Nasser and Faisal|thumb|230x230px|Faisal (left) with Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in Cairo, 1969]]
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization |author=Joy Winkie Viola |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88746-070-8 |page=37|publisher=International Human Resources Development Corporation }}</ref> Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;<ref name="Britannica history" /> in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137" /> In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Muslim world after 9/11 |author=Rabasa, Angel |author2=Benard, Cheryl |author3=Chalk, Peter |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8330-3712-1 |page=42|publisher=Rand Corporation }}</ref> and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]]. It was feared that the country's [[Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]] in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the [[1979 Qatif Uprising]].<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219">{{cite book |title=Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia |author=Toby Craig Jones |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-674-04985-7 |pages=218–219|publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> The second event was the [[Grand Mosque Seizure]] in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219" /> The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the [[ulema]] a greater role in government.<ref name="Hegghammer24">[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 24</ref> Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 }}</ref>

[[File:Saudi Arabia 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways]]
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oil, Dollars, Debt, and Crises: The Global Curse of Black Gold|first1=Mahmoud A. |last1=El-Gamal |author2=Amy Myers Jaffe |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-72070-0|page=41}}</ref> King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]], who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.<ref name="Britannica history"/> The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family<ref name="Britannica history" /> leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=114}}

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and [[Kuwait]] spent $25 billion in support of [[Saddam Hussein]] in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988);<ref>Robert Fisk (2005) ''[[The Great War For Civilisation]]''. Fourth Estate. p. 23. {{ISBN|978-1-4000-7517-1}}</ref> however, Saudi Arabia condemned the [[invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.<ref name="Britannica history" /> King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of [[Yemen]] and [[Jordan]] because of their governments' support of [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]]. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the [[Gulf War]] (1990–1991).<ref name="BBC timeline" />

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to [[List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia|an increase in Islamist terrorism]] in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. [[Osama bin Laden]] was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in East Africa and the 2000 [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] near the port of [[Aden]], Yemen. 15 of [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|the hijackers]] involved in the [[September 11 attacks]] were Saudi nationals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations |first=Christopher |last=Blanchard |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service|year=2009 |pages=5–6}}</ref> Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.<ref>[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 31</ref>

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "[[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]]", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."<ref name="Britannica history"/>

In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Abdullah]], assumed the role of ''de facto'' regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "[[Sudairi Seven]]").<ref>[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], p. 212</ref>

=== 21st century ===
Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.<ref name="Cordesman 2009">{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: National Security in a Troubled Region |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-38076-1 |pages=50–52|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> In February–April 2005, [[2005 Saudi Arabian municipal elections|the first-ever nationwide municipal elections]] were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.<ref name="Britannica history" />

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited [[deregulation]], encouragement of foreign investment, and [[privatization]]. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the [[Islamic religious police|Mutaween]] (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.<ref name="Britannica history" />

On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in [[Jeddah]] in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.<ref name="Montreal">{{cite news|url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/Flood+sparks+rare+action/4189873/story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201053307/http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Flood%2Bsparks%2Brare%2Baction/4189873/story.html |archive-date= 1 February 2011 |title=Flood sparks rare action |date=29 January 2011 |work=Reuters via [[The Gazette (Montreal)|Montreal Gazette]] |url-status=dead }}</ref> Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people.<ref name="Reuters_Dozens_detained">{{cite news|title=Dozens detained in Saudi over flood protests |date=29 January 2011 |work=[[The Peninsula (newspaper)|The Peninsula]] (Qatar)/[[Thomson-Reuters]] |url=http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/140720-dozens-detained-in-saudi-over-flood-protests.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302150701/http://www.thepeninsulaqatar.com/middle-east/140720-dozens-detained-in-saudi-over-flood-protests.html |archive-date=2 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own [[2011–13 Saudi Arabian protests|Arab Spring protests]].<ref name="Fisk_troops">{{cite news|first=Robert |last=Fisk |title=Saudis mobilise thousands of troops to quell growing revolt |date=5 May 2011 |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110306080218/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-date= 6 March 2011 |url-status=live |place=London }}</ref> In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Saudi ruler offers $36bn to stave off uprising amid warning oil price could double |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=24 February 2011 |place=London }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |title=Saudi king gives billion-dollar cash boost to housing, jobs – Politics & Economics |newspaper=Arabian Business |publisher=Bloomberg via ArabianBusiness.com |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702061357/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |title=King Abdullah Returns to Kingdom, Enacts Measures to Boost the Economy |publisher=U.S.-Saudi Arabian Business Council |date=23 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024630/http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref> No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.<ref name="AlJazeeraEnglishBenefits">{{cite news |title=Saudi king announces new benefits |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806003657/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating {{gaps|60|000}} new security jobs.<ref name="theguardian1">{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |title=Saudi Arabia's king announces huge jobs and housing package |work=The Guardian |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018122601/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Donna |last=Abu |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |title=Saudi King to Spend $67 Billion on Housing, Jobs in Bid to Pacify Citizens |publisher=Bloomberg |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150126050910/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although male-only [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2011|municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011]],<ref name="alawsat_details">{{cite news |first=Abeed |last=al-Suhaimy |title=Saudi Arabia announces municipal elections |date=23 March 2011 |publisher=[[Asharq al-Awsat]] |url=http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=24616 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501185625/http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=14 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="bloom_women">{{cite news|first=Donna |last=Abu-Nasr |title=Saudi Women Inspired by Fall of Mubarak Step Up Equality Demand |date=28 March 2011 |publisher=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402043759/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-date= 2 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2015|2015 municipal elections]], and also to be nominated to the [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Shura Council]].<ref name="oman_observer_electionday">{{cite news|title=Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday |date=30 September 2011 |work=[[Oman Observer]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>