Editing Sheba (section)

== History ==
{{See|Ancient history of Yemen}}

=== Formative period ===
The formative phase of the Sabaeans, or the period prior to the emergence of urban cultures in South Arabia, can be placed the latter part of the 2nd millennium BCE, and was completed by the 10th century BCE, where a fully developed script appears in combination with the technological prowess to construct complex architectural complexes and cities. There is some debate as to the degree to which the movement out of the formative phase was channeled by endogenous processes, or the transfer or technologies from other centers, perhaps via trade and immigration.{{Sfn|Nebes|2023|pp=330–332}}{{Sfn|Robin|2002|pp=57–58}}

Originally, the Sabaeans were part of "communities" (called ''shaʿbs'') on the edge of the [[Sayhad desert]]. Very early, at the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, the political leaders of this tribal community managed to create a huge commonwealth of shaʿbs occupying most of South Arabian territory and took on the title "[[Mukarrib]] of the Sabaeans".{{sfn|Korotayev|1996|pp=2–3}}

=== Emergence ===
[[File:BronzeManNashqum.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of {{ill|Hawter 'Atht|ar|هوتر عثت (تمثال برونزي)}} found in [[Al Bayda', Yemen|Al-Baydā']] (ancient Nashqum, Kingdom of Saba'), 6th–5th century BCE, the [[Louvre Museum]]]]

The origin of the Sabaean Kingdom is uncertain and is a point of disagreement among scholars,{{sfn|Nebes|2023|p=330}} with estimates placing it around 1200 BCE,<ref name="Kitchen">Kenneth A. Kitchen ''The World of "Ancient Arabia" Series''. Documentation for Ancient Arabia. Part I. Chronological Framework and Historical Sources p.110</ref> by the 10th century BCE at the latest,{{sfn|Nebes|2023|p=332}}{{sfn|Stein|2024|pp=4–5}} or a period of flourishing that only begins from the 8th century BCE onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible's Sacred Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=2007 |page=171}}</ref> Once the polity had been established, Sabaean kings referred to themselves by the title [[Mukarrib]].

=== First Sabaean kingdom (8th — 1st centuries BCE) ===

==== Era of the ''mukarribs'' ====
The first major phase of the Sabaean civilization lasted between the 8th and 1st centuries BCE. For centuries, Saba dominated the political landscape in South Arabia.{{Sfn|Arbach|Rossi|2022|p=22}} The 8th century is when the first stone inscriptions appear, and when leaders are already being called by the title [[Mukarrib]] ("federator"). Due to this convention, this era can also be called the "Mukarrib period". The title ''mukarrib'' was more prestigious than that of ''mlk'' ("king") and was used to refer to someone that extended hegemony over other tribes and kingdoms.{{Sfn|Robin|2002|p=51}} 

Saba reached the height of its powers between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE. In particular, the great conquests of [[Karib'il Watar]] extended their territory to [[Najran]] in the north, the [[Gulf of Aden]] in the southwest, and eastward from that point along the coast until the western foothills of the Hadhramaut plateau. Saba reigned supreme over South Arabia, and Karib'il established diplomatic contacts with the [[Assyria]]<nowiki/>n emperor [[Sennacherib]]. This territorial range by a South Arabian kingdom would not be seen again until [[Himyar]] achieved it over 1,100 years later.{{Sfn|Nebes|2023|pp=346–347}} Karib'il's success is reflected by the dynastic succession of four rulers from his lineage, including sons, grandson, and great-grandons, a rare occurrence in the face of the rarity of dynastic succession in ancient South Arabian culture. The next time this would be seen was six centuries later in Qataban.{{Sfn|Arbach|Rossi|2022|p=148}}

==== Era of the kings ====
After the 6th century BCE, Saba was unable to maintain its supremacy over South Arabia in the face of the expanding adjacent powers of [[Qataban]] and [[Kingdom of Hadhramaut|Hadhramaut]] militarily, and [[Ma'in]] economically, leading it contract back to its core territory around [[Marib]] and [[Sirwah]]. Sabaean leaders reverted to use of the title ''malik'' ("king") instead of ''mukarrib''.{{Sfn|Schiettecatte|2024}} This decline began soon after the end of the reign of Karib'il Watar. While Karib'il established hegemony over the Jawf, his immediate successors only consolidated their power over some of its former city-states (including [[Nashaq|Nashq]] and Manhayat) whereas others (like [[Yathill]] and the towns of Wadhi Raghwan) were absorbed into Ma'in. Qataban expanded into the Southern Highlands, formerly under Sabaean rule.{{Sfn|Arbach|Rossi|2022|pp=143–144}}

Economically, the first Sabaean period was dominated by a caravan economy that had market ties with the rest of the Near East. Its first major trading partners were at [[Khindanu]] and the [[Middle Euphrates]]. Later, this moved to Gaza during the Persian period, and finally, to [[Petra]] in Hellenistic times. The South Arabian deserts gave rise to important aromatics which were exported in trade, especially [[frankincense]] and [[myrrh]]. It also acted as an intermediary for overland trade with neighbours in [[Africa]] and further off from [[India]].{{Sfn|Robin|2002|pp=51–52}}
[[File:South arabia 100bc (cropped).jpg|thumb|Map of southern Arabia in 100 BCE]]
By the end of the 1st millennium BCE, several factors came together and brought about the decline of the Sabaean state and civilization.{{sfn|Korotayev|1995|p=98}} The biggest challenge came from the expansion of the [[Roman Republic]]. The Republic conquered Syria in 63 BCE and Egypt in 30 BCE, diverting Saba's overland trade network. The Romans then attempted to conquer Saba around 26/25 BCE with an army sent out under the command of the governor [[Aelius Gallus]], setting Marib to siege. Due to heat exhaustion, the siege had to be quickly given up. However, after conquering Egypt, the overland trade network was redirected to maritime routes, with an intermediary port chosen with [[Bir Ali]] (then called Qani). This port was part of the [[Kingdom of Hadhramaut]], far from Sabaean territory.{{Sfn|Robin|2002|p=53}} Greatly economically weakened, the Kingdom of Saba was soon annexed by the [[Himyar|Himyarite Kingdom]], bringing this period to a close.{{sfn|Korotayev|1996}}

=== Second Sabaean kingdom (1st – 3rd centuries CE) ===
[[File:Old_sanaa.jpg|right|thumb|Old Sana'a town with tower buildings]]
After the disintegration of the first Himyarite Kingdom, the Sabaean Kingdom reappeared{{sfn|Korotayev|1996}} and began to vigorously campaign against the Himyarites, and it flourished for another century and a half.{{Sfn|Hoyland|2002|p=47}} This resurgent kingdom was different from the earlier one in many important respects.<ref>KOROTAYEV, A. (1994). [https://www.academia.edu/17729252 Middle Sabaic BN Z: clan group, or head of clan?. ''Journal of semitic studies'', 39(2), 207-219].</ref> The most significant change with the earlier Sabaean period is that local power dynamics had shifted from the oasis cities on the desert margin, like Marib, to the highland tribes.{{Sfn|Robin|2002|p=53}} The Almaqah temple at Marib returned to being a religious center. Saba inaugurated a new coinage and the remarkable [[Ghumdan Palace]] was built at [[Sanaa]] which, in this period, had its status elevated to that of a secondary capital next to Marib.{{Sfn|Hoyland|2002|p=47}}

Despite liberating itself from Himyar by around 100 CE, leaders of Himyar continued calling themselves the "king of Saba", as they had been doing during the period in which they ruled the region, to assert their legitimacy over the territory.{{Sfn|Robin|2002|p=53}} The Kingdom fell after a long but sporadic civil war between several Yemenite dynasties claiming kingship,<ref name="H. Muller p. 53">{{citation |last=Muller |first=D. H. |title=Himyarische Inschriften |page=53 |year=1893 |trans-title=Himyarian inscriptions |publisher=Mordtmann |language=de}}</ref><ref name="Javad Ali p. 420">Javad Ali, ''The Articulate in the History of Arabs before Islam,'' Volume 2, p. 420</ref> and the late [[Himyarite Kingdom]] rose as victorious.{{sfn|Nebes|2023|p=303}} Sabaean kingdom was finally permanently conquered by the Ḥimyarites around 275 CE. Saba lost its royal status and reverted to a normal tribe, limited to the citizens of Marib, who are named in the last time in South Arabian sources in [[CIH 541]] in requesting assistance from the king in repairing a rupture in the [[Marib Dam]].{{Sfn|Schiettecatte|2024}}