Editing Sindh (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Sindh}}

=== Ancient era ===
{{multiple image
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| header            = [[Mohenjo-daro]]
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| image1            = Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg
| caption1          = The [[Priest-King (sculpture)|"Priest King"]] sculpture is carved from [[steatite]].
| image2            = Shiva Pashupati.jpg
| caption2          = The ''[[Pashupati seal]]''
| image3            = Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro.jpg
| caption3          = The [[Dancing Girl (Mohenjo-daro)|Dancing Girl]] of Mohenjo-daro
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| caption4          = Excavated ruins of the Great Bath at [[Mohenjo-daro]]
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Sindh and surrounding areas contain the ruins of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. There are remnants of thousand-year-old cities and structures, with a notable example in Sindh being that of [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo Daro]]. Built around 2500 BC, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus civilization, with features such as standardized bricks, street grids, and covered sewerage systems.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Sanyal, Sanjeev |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/855957425 |title=Land of the seven rivers : a brief history of India's geography |date=10 July 2013 |publisher=Penguin Books |isbn=978-0-14-342093-4 |oclc=855957425}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Archaeological Ruins at Moanjodaro |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/138 |access-date=September 6, 2014 |website=The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) website}}</ref> It was one of the world's earliest major [[City|cities]], contemporaneous with the civilizations of [[ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Minoan civilization|Minoan Crete]], and [[Caral-Supe civilization|Caral-Supe]]. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BC as the Indus Valley Civilization declined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s. Significant excavation has since been conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] in 1980.<ref name="mohenjodaro.net">{{cite web |title=Mohenjo-Daro: An Ancient Indus Valley Metropolis |url=http://www.mohenjodaro.net/mohenjodaroessay.html}}</ref> The site is currently threatened by erosion and improper restoration.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2012-06-26 |title=Mohenjo Daro: Could this ancient city be lost forever? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-18491900 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> A gradual [[Aridification|drying]] of the region during the 3rd&nbsp;millennium BC may have been the initial stimulus for its urbanisation.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2001). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture. pp. 159–60.</ref> Eventually it also reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise and to disperse its population to the east.{{refn|group=lower-alpha|name="Note-Brooke"|{{harvp|Brooke|2014|p=296}}. "The story in Harappan India was somewhat different (see Figure 111.3). The Bronze Age village and urban societies of the Indus Valley are some-thing of an anomaly, in that archaeologists have found little indication of local defense and regional warfare. It would seem that the bountiful monsoon rainfall of the Early to Mid-Holocene had forged a condition of plenty for all, and that competitive energies were channeled into commerce rather than conflict. Scholars have long argued that these rains shaped the origins of the urban Harappan societies, which emerged from Neolithic villages around 2600 BC. It now appears that this rainfall began to slowly taper off in the third millennium, at just the point that the Harappan cities began to develop. Thus it seems that this "first urbanisation" in South Asia was the initial response of the Indus Valley peoples to the beginning of Late Holocene aridification. These cities were maintained for 300 to 400 years and then gradually abandoned as the Harappan peoples resettled in scattered villages in the eastern range of their territories, into the Punjab and the Ganges Valley....' 17 (footnote):<br />
(a) {{harvp|Giosan|Clift|Macklin|Fuller|2012}};<br />
(b) {{harvp|Ponton|Giosan|Eglinton|Fuller|2012}};<br />
(c) {{harvp|Rashid|England|Thompson|Polyak|2011}};<br />
(d) {{harvp|Madella|Fuller|2006}};<br />Compare with the very different interpretations in <br />
(e) {{harvp|Possehl|2002|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pmAuAsi4ePIC&pg=PA239 237–245]}}<br />
(f) {{harvp|Staubwasser|Sirocko|Grootes|Segl|2003}}}}

During the [[Bronze Age]], the territory of Sindh was known as [[Sindhu-Sauvīra]], covering the lower [[Indus River|Indus]] Valley,<ref name="Raychaudhuri2">{{cite book |last=Raychaudhuri |first=Hemchandra |url= |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of Gupta Dynasty |date=1953 |publisher=[[University of Calcutta]] |isbn= |location= |page=197 |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri}}</ref> with its southern border being the [[Indian Ocean]] and its northern border being the [[Punjab|Pañjāb]] around [[Multan|Multān]].{{sfn|Jain|1974|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 209]-[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 210]}} The capital of Sindhu-Sauvīra was named Roruka and Vītabhaya or Vītībhaya, and corresponds to the mediaeval [[Aror|Arohṛ]] and the modern-day [[Rohri|Rohṛī]].{{sfn|Jain|1974|p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 209]-[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.72385/page/n227/mode/2up 210]}}{{sfn|Sikdar|1964|p=501-502}}<ref name="Raychaudhuri">{{cite book |author=H.C. Raychaudhuri |author-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri |title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty |url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory00raycuoft |publisher=University of Calcutta |isbn=978-1-4400-5272-9 |year=1923}}</ref> The [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] conquered the region and established the satrapy of [[Hindush]]. The territory may have corresponded to the area covering the lower and central [[Indus River|Indus]] basin (present day Sindh and the southern [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] regions of Pakistan).<ref>M. A. Dandamaev. "A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire" p 147. BRILL, 1989 {{ISBN|978-9004091726}}</ref> Alternatively, some authors consider that ''Hindush'' may have been located in the [[Punjab]] area.<ref>"''Hidus'' could be the areas of Sindh, or Taxila and West Punjab." in {{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nNDpPqeDjo0C&pg=PA204 |title=Cambridge Ancient History |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521228046 |page=204 |language=en}}</ref> These areas remained under Persian control until the [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|invasion by Alexander]].<ref>Rafi U. Samad, [https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA33 ''The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys.''] Algora Publishing, 2011, p. 33 {{ISBN|0875868592}}</ref>

Alexander conquered parts of Sindh after Punjab for few years and appointed his general [[Peithon (son of Agenor)|Peithon]] as governor. He constructed a harbour at the city of [[Regio Patalis|Patala]] in Sindh.{{sfn|Dani|1981|p=37}}{{sfn|Eggermont|1975|p=13}} [[Chandragupta Maurya]] fought Alexander's successor in the east, [[Seleucus I Nicator]], when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the [[Indus River]] and offered a marriage, including a portion of [[Bactria]], while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.{{sfn|Thorpe|2009|p=33}}

Following a century of Mauryan rule which ended by 180 BC, the region came under the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom|Indo-Greeks]], followed by the [[Indo-Scythians|Indo Scythians]], who ruled with their capital at [[Minnagara]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawlinson |first=H. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UmMnh1XKJjQC |title=Intercourse Between India and the Western World: From the Earliest Times of the Fall of Rome |date=2001 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1549-6 |pages=114 |language=en}}</ref> Later on, [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] rulers from the reign of [[Shapur I]] claimed control of the Sindh area in their inscriptions, known as [[Hind (Sasanian province)|Hind]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Daryaee|first1=Touraj|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU0BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 |title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire|date=2014|publisher=I. B. Tauris |isbn=9780857716668|page=17|language=en|author-link1=Touraj Daryaee}}</ref><ref name="NS">{{cite book |last1=Schindel|first1=Nikolaus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqONDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |title=The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: adaptation and expansion|last2=Alram|first2=Michael|last3=Daryaee |first3=Touraj|last4=Pendleton|first4=Elizabeth|date=2016|publisher=Oxbow Books|isbn=9781785702105 |pages=126–129|language=en}}</ref>

The local [[Rai dynasty]] emerged from Sindh and reigned for a period of 144 years, concurrent with the [[Huna people|Huna]] invasions of North India.{{sfn|Wink|1996|pp=133, 152-153}} [[Aror]] was noted to be the capital.{{sfn|Wink|1996|pp=133, 152-153}}{{sfn|Asif|2016|pp=65, 81-82, 131-134}} The [[Brahmin dynasty of Sindh]] succeeded the [[Rai dynasty]].{{sfn|Wink|1996|p=151}}<ref>P. 505 ''[[The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians]]'' by Henry Miers Elliot, John Dowson</ref><ref name="Gier">Nicholas F. Gier, ''FROM MONGOLS TO MUGHALS: RELIGIOUS VIOLENCE IN INDIA 9TH-18TH CENTURIES'', presented at the Pacific Northwest Regional Meeting American Academy of Religion, Gonzaga University, May 2006 [http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/mm.htm]. Retrieved 11 December 2006.</ref><ref name="Naik">{{cite book |last=Naik |first=C.D. |title=Buddhism and Dalits: Social Philosophy and Traditions |publisher=Kalpaz Publications |year=2010 |isbn=978-81-7835-792-8 |location=Delhi |page=32}}</ref> Most of the information about its existence comes from the ''[[Chach Nama]]'', a historical account of the Chach-Brahmin dynasty.<ref>P. 164 ''Notes on the religious, moral, and political state of India before the Mahomedan invasion, chiefly founded on the travels of the Chinese Buddhist priest Fai Han in India, AD 399, and on the commentaries of Messrs. Remusat, Klaproth and Burnouf, Lieutenant-Colonel W.H. Sykes'' by Sykes, Colonel;</ref> After the empire's fall in 712, though the empire had ended, its dynasty's members administered parts of Sindh under the Umayyad Caliphate's [[Caliphal province of Sind]].{{sfn|Wink|1991|pp=152-153}}

=== Medieval era ===
After the death of the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]], the Arab expansion towards the east reached the Sindh region beyond [[Persia]].<ref name="UNESCO">{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye |first2=Ravane |title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA602|year=2012|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|page=602}}</ref> The connection between the Sindh and [[Islam]] was established by the initial Muslim invasions during the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Al-Hakim ibn Jabalah al-Abdi, who attacked [[Makran]] in the year 649, was an early partisan of [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 1262">MacLean, Derryl N. (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, pp. 126, BRILL, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}</ref> During the caliphate of Ali, many Jats of Sindh had come under the influence of Shi'ism<ref>S. A. A. Rizvi, "A socio-intellectual History of Isna Ashari Shi'is in India", Volo. 1, pp. 138, Mar'ifat Publishing House, Canberra (1986).</ref> and some even participated in the [[Battle of Camel]] and died fighting for [[Ali]].<ref name="MacLean, Derryl N. 1989 pp. 1262" /> Under the Umayyads (661–750), many Shias sought asylum in the region of Sindh, to live in relative peace in the remote area. Ziyad Hindi is one of those refugees.<ref>S. A. N. Rezavi, "The Shia Muslims", in History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization, Vol. 2, Part. 2: "Religious Movements and Institutions in Medieval India", Chapter 13, Oxford University Press (2006).</ref> The first clash with the [[Hindu king]]s of Sindh took place in 636 (15 AH) under Caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] with the governor of Bahrain, [[Uthman ibn Abu-al-Aas]], dispatching naval expeditions against [[Thane]] and [[Bharuch]] and [[Debal]].<ref>{{citation|last1=El Hareir|first1=Idris|last2=Mbaye|first2=Ravane|title=The Spread of Islam Throughout the World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVYT4Kraym0C&pg=PA601 |year=2012|publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104153-2|pages=601–602}}</ref> [[Al-Baladhuri]] states they were victorious at Debal but doesn't mention the results of other two raids. However, the ''[[Chach Nama]]'' states that the raid of Debal was defeated and its governor killed the leader of the raids.<ref>{{citation|last=Majumdar |first=Ramesh Chandra |author-link=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar|title=Readings in political history of India, ancient, mediaeval, and modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvggAAAAMAAJ|year=1976 |publisher=B.R. Pub. Corp., on behalf of Indian Society for Prehistoric and Quaternary Studies|page=216}}</ref> These raids were thought to be triggered by a later pirate attack on Umayyad ships.{{sfn|Tripathi|1967|p=337}} Baladhuri adds that this stopped any more incursions until the reign of [[Uthman]].{{sfn|Asif|2016|p=35}}

In 712, [[Muhammad ibn al-Qasim|Mohammed Bin Qasim]] defeated the [[Brahmin dynasty of Sindh|Brahmin dynasty]] and [[Sind (caliphal province)|annexed it to the Umayyad Caliphate]]. This marked the beginning of Islam in the Indian subcontinent. The [[Habbari dynasty]] ruled much of Greater Sindh, as a semi-independent ''emirate'' from 854 to 1024. Beginning with the rule of 'Umar bin Abdul Aziz al-Habbari in 854, the region became semi-independent from the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] in 861, while continuing to nominally pledge allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph in [[Baghdad]].<ref name="Singh2">P. M. ( Nagendra Kumar Singh), ''Muslim Kingship in India'', Anmol Publications, 1999, {{ISBN|81-261-0436-8}}, {{ISBN|978-81-261-0436-9}} pg 43-45.</ref><ref name="Maclean2">P. M. ( Derryl N. Maclean), ''Religion and society in Arab Sindh'', Published by Brill, 1989, {{ISBN|90-04-08551-3}}, {{ISBN|978-90-04-08551-0}} pg 140-143.</ref> The Habbaris ruled Sindh until they were defeated by [[Sultan]] [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud Ghaznavi]] in 1026, who then went on to destroy the old Habbari capital of Mansura, and annex the region to the [[Ghaznavid|Ghaznavid Empire]], thereby ending Arab rule of Sindh.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lI9AAAAMAAJ&q=ghaznavid+mansura|title=An Observation: Perspective of Pakistan|last=Abdulla|first=Ahmed|date=1987|publisher=Tanzeem Publishers|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&q=ghaznavid+mansura&pg=PA6 |title=Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500|last=Habib|first=Irfan|date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-2791-1|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Soomra dynasty]] was a local Sindhi Muslim dynasty that ruled between early 11th century and the 14th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Siddiqui |first=Habibullah |title=The Soomras of Sindh: their origin, main characteristics and rule – an overview (general survey) (1025–1351 CE) |url=http://www.uok.edu.pk/faculties/sindhi/docs/soomroEng.pdf |journal=Literary Conference on Soomra Period in Sindh}}</ref><ref name="IJDL-2007">{{cite journal |date=2007 |title=The Arab Conquest |journal=International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics |volume=36 |issue=1 |page=91 |quote=The Soomras are believed to be Parmar Rajputs found even today in Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kutch and Sindh. The Cambridge History of India refers to the Soomras as "a Rajput dynasty the later members of which accepted Islam" (p. 54 ).}}</ref><ref name="Dani-2007">{{Cite book |last=Dani |first=Ahmad Hasan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D_xtAAAAMAAJ&q=soomra+dynasty |title=History of Pakistan: Pakistan through ages |date=2007 |publisher=Sang-e Meel Publications |isbn=978-969-35-2020-0 |pages=218 |language=en |quote=But as many kings of the dynasty bore Hindu names, it is almost certain that the Soomras were of local origin. Sometimes they are connected with Paramara Rajputs, but of this there is no definite proof.}}</ref> Later chroniclers like [[Ali ibn al-Athir]] (c. late 12th c.) and [[Ibn Khaldun]] (c. late 14th c.) attributed the fall of Habbarids to Mahmud of Ghazni, lending credence to the argument of Hafif being the last Habbarid.<ref name="Collinet-2008a">{{Cite book |last=Collinet |first=Annabelle |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=9, 11, 113 (note 43) |language=en |chapter=Chronology of Sehwan Sharif through Ceramics (The Islamic Period)}}</ref> The Soomras appear to have established themselves as a regional power in this power vacuum.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/><ref name="Boivin-2008a">{{Cite book |last=Boivin |first=Michel |title=Sindh through history and representations : French contributions to Sindhi studies |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-547503-6 |editor-last=Boivin |editor-first=Michel |location=Karachi |pages=30 |language=en |chapter=Shivaite Cults And Sufi Centres: A Reappraisal Of The Medieval Legacy In Sindh}}</ref> The [[Ghurid dynasty|Ghurids]] and [[Ghaznavids]] continued to rule parts of Sindh, across the eleventh and early twelfth century, alongside Soomrus.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/> The precise delineations are not yet known but Sommrus were probably centered in lower Sindh.<ref name="Collinet-2008a"/> Some of them were adherents of [[Isma'ilism]].<ref name="Boivin-2008a"/> One of their kings Shimuddin Chamisar had submitted to [[Iltutmish]], the [[Sultan of Delhi]], and was allowed to continue on as a vassal.<ref name="Ray201932">{{cite book |author=Aniruddha Ray |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNSNDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT43 |title=The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture |date=4 March 2019 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-00-000729-9 |pages=43–}}</ref>

{{multiple image
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| header            = [[Makli Necropolis]]
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| footer            = The [[Makli Necropolis]] at [[Thatta]] is one of the largest funerary sites in the world.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/143 | title=Historical Monuments at Makli, Thatta}}</ref>
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}}

The [[Samma (tribe)|Sammas]] overthrew the Soomras soon after 1335 and established the Sindh Sultanate. The last Soomra ruler took shelter with the governor of [[Gujarat]], under the protection of [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]], the [[sultan of Delhi]].<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif197622">{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Rapson |first1=Edward James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBNZAAAAYAAJ&q=Samma+ |title=The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig |last2=Haig |first2=Sir Wolseley |last3=Burn |first3=Sir Richard |last4=Dodwell |first4=Henry |date=1965 |publisher=Chand |pages=518 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="guj2">{{cite book |author1=U. M. Chokshi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-qHiAAAAMAAJ |title=Gujarat State Gazetteer |author2=M. R. Trivedi |publisher=Director, Government Print., Stationery and Publications, Gujarat State |year=1989 |page=274 |quote=It was the conquest of Kutch by the Sindhi tribe of Sama Rajputs that marked the emergence of Kutch as a separate kingdom in the 14th century.}}</ref> Mohammad bin Tughlaq made an expedition against Sindh in 1351 and died at Sondha, possibly in an attempt to restore the Soomras. With this, the Sammas became independent. The next sultan, [[Firuz Shah Tughlaq]] attacked Sindh in 1365 and 1367, unsuccessfully, but with reinforcements from [[Delhi]] he later obtained Banbhiniyo's surrender. For a period the Sammas were therefore subject to Delhi again. Later, as the Sultanate of Delhi collapsed they became fully independent.<ref name="panhwar.com22">{{Cite web |url=http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |title=Directions in the History and Archaeology of Sindh by M. H. Panhwar |access-date=12 January 2023 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225062314/http://www.panhwar.com/Article162.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Jam Unar was the founder of Samma dynasty mentioned by [[Ibn Battuta]].<ref name="panhwar.com22"/> The Samma civilization contributed significantly to the evolution of the [[Indo-Islamic architecture|Indo-Islamic architectural]] style. Thatta is famous for its necropolis, which covers 10 square km on the [[Makli Hill]].<ref>[http://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1 Archnet.org: Thattah] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120606120407/https://archnet.org/library/places/one-place.jsp?place_id=2179&order_by=year&showdescription=1|date=2012-06-06}}</ref> It has left its mark in Sindh with magnificent structures including the [[Makli Necropolis]] of its royals in Thatta.<ref name="(Pakistan)Latif19763">{{cite book |author1=Census Organization (Pakistan) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63maAAAAIAAJ&q=yadav+rajputs |title=Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Larkana |author2=Abdul Latif |publisher=Manager of Publications |year=1976}}</ref><ref>Population Census of Pakistan, 1972: Jacobabad</ref> They were later overthrown by the Turkic [[Arghun dynasty|Arghuns]] in the late 15th century.<ref>The Travels of Marco Polo - Complete (Mobi Classics) By Marco Polo, Rustichello of Pisa, Henry Yule (Translator)</ref><ref name="Bosworth p. 329">Bosworth, "New Islamic Dynasties," p. 329</ref>

=== Modern era ===
{{main|Sind State}}
[[File:Elaborately illustrated map of the Thatta Subah of the Mughal Empire, commissioned by Jean Baptiste Joseph Gentil, ca.1770.jpg|thumb|Elaborately illustrated map of the Thatta Subah of the Mughal Empire, commissioned by Jean Baptiste Joseph Gentil, ca.1770]]
In the late 16th century, Sindh was brought into the [[Mughal Empire]] by [[Akbar]], himself born in the [[Rajputana|Rajputana kingdom]] in [[Umerkot]] in Sindh.<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite book |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jtsMLNmMzbkC&pg=PA39 |title=''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia'' by Nicholas Tarling p.39 |year=1999 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521663700}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Hispania [Publicaciones periódicas]. Volume 74, Number 3, September 1991 |website=Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01475176655936417554480/p0000002.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924052446/http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/servlet/SirveObras/01475176655936417554480/p0000002.htm |archive-date=24 September 2015 |access-date=27 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Mughal rule from their provincial capital of [[Thatta]] was to last in lower Sindh until the early 18th century, while upper Sindh was ruled by the indigenous [[Kalhora dynasty]] holding power, consolidating their rule from their capital of [[Khudabad]], before shifting to [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]] from 1768 onwards.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brohī |first=ʻAlī Aḥmad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gBuAAAAMAAJ&q=Kalhoras+a+local+Sindhi+tribe+of+Channa+origin |title=The Temple of Sun God: Relics of the Past |date=1998 |publisher=Sangam Publications |pages=175 |language=en |quote="Kalhoras a local Sindhi tribe of Channa origin..."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Burton |first=Richard Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RZQMzQLsyk0C&dq=They+were+originally+Channa+Sindhis+,+and+therefore+converted+Hindoos&pg=PA410 |title=Sindh, and the Races that Inhabit the Valley of the Indus |date=1851 |publisher=W. H. Allen |pages=410 |language=en |quote="Kalhoras...were originally Channa Sindhis, and therefore converted Hindoos."}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Migrants and Militants: Fun and Urban Violence in Pakistan |last=Verkaaik|first=Oskar|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-69111-709-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/migrantsmilitant0000verk |url-access=registration|pages=[https://archive.org/details/migrantsmilitant0000verk/page/94 94], 99|quote=The area of the Hindu-built mansion Pakka Qila was built in 1768 by the Kalhora kings, a local dynasty of Arab origin that ruled Sindh independently from the decaying Moghul Empire beginning in the mid-eighteenth century.}}</ref>

The [[Talpur dynasty|Talpurs]] succeeded the Kalhoras and four branches of the dynasty were established.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-04-21 |title=History of Khairpur and the royal Talpurs of Sindh |url=https://dailytimes.com.pk/230879/history-of-khairpur-and-the-royal-talpurs-of-sindh/ |access-date=2020-03-06 |website=Daily Times |language=en-US}}</ref> One ruled lower Sindh from the city of [[Hyderabad, Sindh|Hyderabad]], another ruled over upper Sindh from the city of [[Khairpur]], a third ruled around the eastern city of [[Mirpur Khas]], and a fourth was based in [[Tando Muhammad Khan]]. They were ethnically [[Baloch people|Baloch]],<ref name="Solomon-2006">{{Cite book |last1=Solomon |first1=R. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47sfj8DUwNgC&dq=talpur+sindh&pg=PA337 |title=Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey |last2=Bond |first2=J. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Asian Educational Services |isbn=978-81-206-1965-4 |language=en}}</ref> and for most of their rule, they were subordinate to the [[Durrani Empire]] and were forced to pay tribute to them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baloch |first1=Inayatullah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ox0NAAAAIAAJ&q=talpurs+vassals |title=The Problem of "Greater Baluchistan": A Study of Baluch Nationalism |date=1987 |publisher=Steiner Verlag Wiesbaden |isbn=9783515049993 |page=121}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ziad |first1=Waleed |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W-ZFEAAAQBAJ&dq=durranis+talpur&pg=PA53 |title=Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus |date=2021 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674248816 |page=53}}</ref>

They ruled from 1783, until 1843, when they were in turn defeated by the [[British Raj|British]] at the [[Battle of Miani]] and [[Battle of Dubba|Battle of Dubbo]].<ref name="Talpur-2002">{{Cite web |title=The Royal Talpurs of Sindh - Historical Background |url=http://www.talpur.org/Home/historical-background |accessdate=2020-02-23 |website=www.talpur.org|date=24 July 2002 }}</ref> The northern Khairpur branch of the Talpur dynasty, however, continued to maintain a degree of sovereignty during British rule as the [[Khairpur (princely state)|princely state of Khairpur]],<ref name="Solomon-2006" /> whose ruler elected to join the new [[Dominion of Pakistan]] in October 1947 as an autonomous region, before being fully amalgamated into [[West Pakistan]] in 1955.

==== British Raj ====
{{See also|Sind Province (1936–55)}}
[[File:Bombay Prov 1909.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Sindh became part of the [[Bombay Presidency]] in 1909.]]
The [[United Kingdom|British]] conquered Sindh in 1843. General [[Charles James Napier|Charles Napier]] is said to have reported victory to the Governor General with a one-word telegram, namely ''"[[Peccavi]]"'' &ndash; or ''"I have sinned"'' ([[Latin]]).<ref>General Napier apocryphally reported his conquest of the province to his superiors with the one-word message ''peccavi'', a schoolgirl's pun recorded in [[Punch (magazine)]] relying on the Latin word's meaning, "I have sinned", homophonous to "I have Sindh". [[Eugene Ehrlich]], ''Nil Desperandum: A Dictionary of Latin Tags and Useful Phrases ''[Original title: ''Amo, Amas, Amat and More''], BCA 1992 [1985], p. 175.</ref> The British had two objectives in their rule of Sindh: the consolidation of British rule and the use of Sindh as a market for British products and a source of revenue and raw materials. With the appropriate infrastructure in place, the British hoped to utilise Sindh for its economic potential.<ref name="LongSingh2015">{{citation|author1=Roger D. Long|author2=Gurharpal Singh|author3=Yunas Samad|author4=Ian Talbot|title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102|date=8 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-44820-4|pages=102–}}</ref> The British incorporated Sindh, some years later after annexing it, into the [[Bombay Presidency]]. Distance from the provincial capital, Bombay, led to grievances that Sindh was neglected in contrast to other parts of the Presidency. The merger of Sindh into Punjab province was considered from time to time but was turned down because of British disagreement and Sindhi opposition, both from Muslims and Hindus, to being annexed to Punjab.<ref name="LongSingh2015" />

Later, desire for a separate administrative status for Sindh grew. At the annual session of the Indian National Congress in 1913, a Sindhi Hindu put forward the demand for Sindh's separation from the Bombay Presidency on the grounds of Sindh's unique cultural character. This reflected the desire of Sindh's predominantly Hindu commercial class to free itself from competing with the more powerful Bombay's business interests.<ref name="LongSingh2015" /> Meanwhile, Sindhi politics was characterised in the 1920s by the growing importance of Karachi and the Khilafat Movement.<ref name="Malik1999">{{citation|author=I. Malik|title=Islam, Nationalism and the West: Issues of Identity in Pakistan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyWBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56|date=3 June 1999|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-0-230-37539-0|pages=56–}}</ref> A number of Sindhi pirs, descendants of Sufi saints who had proselytised in Sindh, joined the Khilafat Movement, which propagated the protection of the Ottoman Caliphate, and those pirs who did not join the movement found a decline in their following.<ref name="Minault1982">{{citation|author=Gail Minault|title=The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAW8GreFqjkC&pg=PA105 |year=1982 |publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-05072-2|pages=105–}}</ref> The pirs generated huge support for the Khilafat cause in Sindh.{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=77}} Sindh came to be at the forefront of the [[Khilafat Movement]].<ref name="Society2007">{{citation|author=Pakistan Historical Society|title=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_svAQAAIAAJ|year=2007 |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society.|page=245}}</ref>

Although Sindh had a cleaner record of communal harmony than other parts of India, the province's Muslim elite and emerging Muslim middle class demanded separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency as a safeguard for their own interests. In this campaign, local Sindhi Muslims identified 'Hindu' with Bombay instead of Sindh. Sindhi Hindus were seen as representing the interests of Bombay instead of the majority of Sindhi Muslims. Sindhi Hindus, for the most part, opposed the separation of Sindh from Bombay.<ref name="LongSingh2015" /> Although Sindh had a culture of religious syncretism, communal harmony and tolerance due to Sindh's strong [[Sufism|Sufi]] culture in which both Sindhi Muslims and Sindhi Hindus partook,<ref name="auto">Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'', 39:4, 775, {{doi|10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752}}</ref> both the Muslim landed elite, ''waderas'', and the Hindu commercial elements, ''[[Bania (caste)|banias]]'', collaborated in oppressing the predominantly Muslim peasantry of Sindh who were economically exploited.<ref name="Jalal20022">{{cite book |author=Ayesha Jalal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sa6CAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA415 |title=Self and Sovereignty: Individual and Community in South Asian Islam Since 1850 |date=4 January 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-59937-0 |pages=415–}}</ref> Sindhi Muslims eventually demanded the separation of Sindh from the Bombay Presidency, a move opposed by Sindhi Hindus.{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=77}}<ref name="LongSingh20152">{{cite book |author1=Roger D. Long |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 |title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security |author2=Gurharpal Singh |author3=Yunas Samad |author4=Ian Talbot |date=8 October 2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44820-4 |pages=102–}}</ref><ref name="Society20072">{{cite book |author=Pakistan Historical Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j_svAQAAIAAJ |title=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society. |year=2007 |page=245}}</ref>

In Sindh's first provincial election after its separation from Bombay in 1936, economic interests were an essential factor of politics informed by religious and cultural issues.<ref name="Jalal2002">{{harvnb|Jalal|2002|p=415}}</ref> Due to British policies, much land in Sindh was transferred from Muslim to Hindu hands over the decades.<ref name="SinghIyer2016">{{citation|author1=Amritjit Singh|author2=Nalini Iyer|author3=Rahul K. Gairola|title=Revisiting India's Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tmA0DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127|date=15 June 2016|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-1-4985-3105-4|pages=127–}}</ref> Religious tensions rose in Sindh over the Sukkur Manzilgah issue where Muslims and Hindus disputed over an abandoned mosque in proximity to an area sacred to Hindus. The Sindh Muslim League exploited the issue and agitated for the return of the mosque to Muslims. Consequentially, a thousand members of the Muslim League were imprisoned. Eventually, due to panic the government restored the mosque to Muslims.<ref name="Jalal2002" /> The separation of Sindh from Bombay Presidency triggered Sindhi Muslim nationalists to support the Pakistan Movement. Even while the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province were ruled by parties hostile to the Muslim League, Sindh remained loyal to Jinnah.<ref name="Ahmed2016">{{citation|author=Khaled Ahmed|title=Sleepwalking to Surrender: Dealing with Terrorism in Pakistan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TbzBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT230|date=18 August 2016|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-86057-62-4|pages=230–}}</ref> Although the prominent Sindhi Muslim nationalist [[G. M. Syed]] left the All India Muslim League in the mid-1940s and his relationship with Jinnah never improved, the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims supported the creation of Pakistan, seeing in it their deliverance.<ref name="Malik1999" /> Sindhi support for the Pakistan Movement arose from the desire of the Sindhi Muslim business class to drive out their Hindu competitors.<ref name="Kukreja2003">{{citation|author=Veena Kukreja|title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA138|date=24 February 2003|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5|pages=138–}}</ref> The Muslim League's rise to becoming the party with the strongest support in Sindh was in large part linked to its winning over of the religious pir families.{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=115}} Although the Muslim League had previously fared poorly in the 1937 elections in Sindh, when local Sindhi Muslim parties won more seats,{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=115}} the Muslim League's cultivation of support from local pirs in 1946 helped it gain a foothold in the province,{{sfn|Ansari|1992|p=122}} it didn't take long for the overwhelming majority of Sindhi Muslims to campaign for the creation of Pakistan.<ref name="Malik19992">{{cite book |author=I. Malik |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyWBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 |title=Islam, Nationalism and the West: Issues of Identity in Pakistan |date=3 June 1999 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-0-230-37539-0 |pages=56–}}</ref><ref name="Kukreja20032">{{cite book |author=Veena Kukreja |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dp05sFFSAbIC&pg=PA138 |title=Contemporary Pakistan: Political Processes, Conflicts and Crises |date=24 February 2003 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-0-7619-9683-5 |pages=138–}}</ref>

==== Partition (1947) ====
In 1947, violence did not constitute a major part of the Sindhi partition experience, unlike in Punjab. There were very few incidents of violence on Sindh, in part due to the Sufi-influenced culture of religious tolerance and in part that Sindh was not divided and was instead made part of Pakistan in its entirety. Sindhi Hindus who left generally did so out of a fear of persecution, rather than persecution itself, because of the arrival of Muslim refugees from India. Sindhi Hindus differentiated between the local Sindhi Muslims and the migrant Muslims from India. A large number of Sindhi Hindus travelled to India by sea, to the ports of Bombay, Porbandar, Veraval and Okha.<ref>Priya Kumar & Rita Kothari (2016) Sindh, 1947 and Beyond, ''South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies'', 39:4, 776–777, DOI: 10.1080/00856401.2016.1244752</ref>