Editing Social learning theory (section)

=== Bandura's Social Learning Theory (1977) ===
Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963,<ref name="SLPD" /> the theory was entirely behavioral in nature; the crucial element that made it innovative and increasingly influential was its emphasis upon the role of imitation. Over the years, however, Bandura shifted to a more cognitive perspective, and this led to a major revision of the theory in 1977.<ref name="B1977">{{cite book |last = Bandura |first = Albert |title = Social Learning Theory |year = 1977 |publisher = Prentice-Hall |location = Oxford, England }}</ref> At this time, the key tenets of Social Learning Theory were stated as follows:<ref name="Grusec">{{cite journal |last = Grusec |first = Joan |title = Social Learning Theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of Robert Sears and Albert Bandura |journal = Developmental Psychology |year = 1992 |volume = 28 |issue = 5 |doi = 10.1037/0012-1649.28.5.776 |pages = 776–786 }}</ref>
# Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a ''cognitive'' process that takes place in a social context.
# Learning can occur by observing a behavior ''and'' by observing the consequences of the behavior ('''vicarious reinforcement''').
# Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or '''modeling'''). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.
# Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.
# The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and behavior all mutually influence each other ('''reciprocal determinism''').

==== Observation and direct experience ====
Typical stimulus-response theories rely entirely upon direct experience (of the stimulus) to inform behavior. Bandura opens up the scope of learning mechanisms by introducing observation as a possibility.<ref name=":1" /> He adds to this the ability of modeling – a means by which humans "represent actual outcomes symbolically".<ref name=":1" /> These models, cognitively mediated, allow future consequences to have as much of an impact as actual consequences would in a typical stimulus-response theory. An important factor in Social Learning Theory is the concept of '''[[reciprocal determinism]]'''. This notion states that just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment is also influenced by the individual's behavior.<ref name="B1977" /> In other words, a person's behavior, environment, and personal qualities all reciprocally influence each other. For example, a child who plays violent video games will likely influence their peers to play as well, which then encourages the child to play more often.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}

==== Modeling and underlying cognitive processes ====
Social Learning Theory draws heavily on the concept of modeling as described above. Bandura outlined three types of modeling stimuli:<ref>{{cite web |title=Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory In Psychology |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html |access-date=24 October 2023 |date=3 November 2022}}</ref>
# '''Live models''', where a person is demonstrating the desired behavior
# '''Verbal instruction''', in which an individual describes the desired behavior in detail and instructs the participant in how to engage in the behavior
# '''Symbolic''', in which modeling occurs by means of the media, including movies, television, Internet, literature, and radio. Stimuli can be either real or fictional characters.
Exactly what information is gleaned from observation is influenced by the type of model, as well as a series of cognitive and behavioral processes, including:<ref name="B1972">{{cite book |title=Recent trends in Social Learning Theory |publisher=Academic Press |year=1972 |location=New York |chapter=Modeling theory: Some traditions, trends, and disputes |last=Bandura |first=A. |editor-last=Parke |editor-first=R. D. |isbn=0-12-545050-8 }}</ref>
* [[Attention]] – in order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Experimental studies<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Postman|first1=Leo|last2=Sassenrath|first2=Julius|date=1961-07-01|title=The Automatic Action of Verbal Rewards and Punishments|journal=The Journal of General Psychology|volume=65|issue=1|pages=109–136|doi=10.1080/00221309.1961.9920464|issn=0022-1309|pmid=13737423}}</ref> have found that awareness of what is being learned and the mechanisms of reinforcement greatly boosts learning outcomes. Attention is impacted by characteristics of the observer (e.g., perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value). In this way, social factors contribute to attention – the [[Reputation|prestige]] of different models affects the relevance and functional value of observation and therefore modulates  attention.
* [[Recall (memory)|Retention]] – In order to reproduce an observed behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior. Again, this process is influenced by observer characteristics (cognitive capabilities, cognitive rehearsal) and event characteristics (complexity). The cognitive processes underlying retention are described by Bandura as visual and verbal, where verbal descriptions of models are used in more complex scenarios.
* [[Copying|Reproduction]] – By reproduction, Bandura refers not to the propagation of the model but the implementation of it. This requires a degree of cognitive skill, and may in some cases require [[Sensory-motor coupling|sensorimotor]] capabilities.<ref name=":3" /> Reproduction can be difficult because in the case of behaviors that are reinforced through self-observation (he cites improvement in sports), it can be difficult to observe behavior well. This can require the input of others to provide self-correcting feedback. Newer studies on feedback<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Shu-Ling|last2=Wu|first2=Pei-Yi|date=2008-12-01|title=The role of feedback and self-efficacy on web-based learning: The social cognitive perspective|journal=Computers & Education|volume=51|issue=4|pages=1589–1598|doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2008.03.004}}</ref> support this idea by suggesting effective feedback, which would help with observation and correction improves the performance on participants on tasks.
* [[Motivation]] – The decision to reproduce (or refrain from reproducing) an observed behavior is dependent on the motivations and expectations of the observer, including anticipated consequences and internal standards. Bandura's description of motivation is also fundamentally based on environmental and thus social factors, since motivational factors are driven by the functional value of different behaviors in a given environment.

==== Evolution and cultural intelligence ====
Social Learning Theory has more recently applied alongside and been used to justify the theory of cultural intelligence.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last1=Schaik|first1=Carel P. van|last2=Burkart|first2=Judith M.|date=2011-04-12|title=Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=366|issue=1567|pages=1008–1016|doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0304|issn=0962-8436|pmc=3049085|pmid=21357223}}</ref> The cultural intelligence hypothesis argues that humans possess a set of specific behaviors and skills that allow them to exchange information culturally.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Herrmann|first1=Esther|last2=Call|first2=Josep|last3=Hernàndez-Lloreda|first3=María Victoria|last4=Hare|first4=Brian|last5=Tomasello|first5=Michael|date=2007-09-07|title=Humans Have Evolved Specialized Skills of Social Cognition: The Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis|journal=Science|language=en|volume=317|issue=5843|pages=1360–1366|doi=10.1126/science.1146282|issn=0036-8075|pmid=17823346|bibcode=2007Sci...317.1360H|s2cid=686663 |doi-access=}}</ref> This hinges on a model of human learning where social learning is key, and that humans have [[Natural selection|selected]] for traits that maximize opportunities for social learning. The theory builds on extant social theory by suggesting that social learning abilities, like Bandura's cognitive processes required for modeling, correlate with other forms of intelligence and learning.<ref name=":6" /> Experimental evidence has shown that humans overimitate behavior compared to chimpanzees, lending credence to the idea that we have selected for methods of social learning.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Whiten|first1=Andrew|last2=McGuigan|first2=Nicola|last3=Marshall-Pescini|first3=Sarah|last4=Hopper|first4=Lydia M.|date=2009-08-27|title=Emulation, imitation, over-imitation and the scope of culture for child and chimpanzee|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences|language=en|volume=364|issue=1528|pages=2417–2428|doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0069|issn=0962-8436|pmc=2865074|pmid=19620112}}</ref> Some academics have suggested that our ability to learn socially and culturally have led to our success as a species.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://secretofoursuccess.fas.harvard.edu/|title=THE SECRET OF OUR SUCCESS|website=secretofoursuccess.fas.harvard.edu|language=en|access-date=2017-03-31}}</ref>