Editing Social science (section)

==Branches==
{{For outline|Outline of social science#Branches of social science}}
The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the [[academic journal]]s in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-20 |title=The 12 Branches of Social Sciences (explained) {{!}} 2025 |url=https://psychologyfor.com/the-12-branches-of-social-sciences-explained/ |access-date=2025-02-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> The following are widely-considered to be social sciences:<ref name="Kuper1985" />
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* [[Accounting]]
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Archaeology]]
* [[Archival science]]
* [[Area studies]]
* [[Behavioural science]]
* [[Business studies]]
* [[Cartography]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Commerce]]
* [[Communication studies]]
* [[Crime science]]
* [[Criminology]]
* [[Cultural studies]]
* [[Culturology]]
* [[Demography]]
* [[Development studies]]
* [[Discourse analysis]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Education]]
* [[Education science]]
* [[Environmental science]]
* [[Environmental social science]]
* [[Environmental studies]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Ethnobotany]]
* [[Ethnography]]
* [[Ethnology]]
* [[Finance]]
* [[Folklore studies]]
* [[Futures studies]]
* [[Gender studies]]
* [[Geography]]
* [[Global studies]]
* [[History]]
* [[Home economics]]
* [[Human resource management]]
* [[Industrial relations]]
* [[Information sciences]]
* [[International relations]]
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Law]]
* [[Legal management]]
* [[Library science]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Management]]
* [[Management science]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]
* [[Organizational studies]]
* [[Paralegal studies]]
* [[Penology]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Political science]]
* [[Public administration]]
* [[Public health]]
* [[Public policy]]
* [[Public relations]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Religious studies]]
* [[Social work]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[Strategic studies]]
* [[Strategic management]]
* [[Sustainable development]]
* [[Sustainability studies]]
* [[Theology]]
}}

===Anthropology===
{{Main|Anthropology|Outline of anthropology}}

Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, [[humanities]], and [[human biology]]. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. Secondly, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Finally, the social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wallerstein | first1 = I. | title = Anthropology, Sociology, and Other Dubious Disciplines | doi = 10.1086/375868 | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 44 | issue = 4 | pages = 453–65 | year = 2003 | url = http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/42294/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Calhoun%2CC_Comment%20on_Comment%20on%28lsero%29.pdf }}</ref> Within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology, [[Physical Anthropology|physical or biological anthropology]], [[anthropological linguistics]], and [[cultural anthropology]]. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word {{lang|grc-Latn|anthropos}} ({{lang|grc|ἄνθρωπος}}) in Ancient Greek means "human being" or "person". [[Eric Wolf]] described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences".{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The goal of anthropology is to provide a [[Holism|holistic]] account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior".<ref>{{cite book |last=Lowie |first=Robert |title=Primitive Religion |publisher=Routledge and Sons |year=1924}}; {{cite book |last=Tylor |first=Edward |year=1920 |orig-year=1871 |title=Primitive Culture |location=New York |publisher=J.P. Putnam's Sons}}</ref> Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of [[subsistence]] or [[Modes of production|production]], such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk ({{lang|und-Latn|ethnos}}) remaining of great interest within anthropology.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.<ref>{{citation |author-link1=Serena Nanda|last1=Nanda |first1=Serena |first2=Richard |last2=Warms |title=Culture Counts |publisher=Wadsworth |year=2008 |chapter=Chapter One}}</ref> In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a [[culture]], of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<ref>{{citation |last=Rosaldo |first=Renato |title=Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1993}}; {{citation |last1=Inda |first1=John Xavier |first2=Renato |last2=Rosaldo |title=The Anthropology of Globalization |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2007}}</ref>

===Communication studies===
{{Main|Communication studies|History of communication studies}}
Communication studies deals with processes of human [[communication]], commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]]. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examine how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, and social dimensions of their contexts. Communication is institutionalized under many different names at different universities, including ''communication'', ''communication studies'', ''speech communication'', ''rhetorical studies'', ''communication science'', ''media studies'', ''communication arts'', [[mass communication]], [[media ecology]], and ''communication and media science''.

Communication studies integrate aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, among others. From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of [[Ancient Greece]]). The field applies to outside disciplines as well, including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and information science.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

===Economics===
{{Main|Economics|Outline of economics}}
Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct=|title=economics – Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> The word "economics" is from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|οἶκος}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|oikos}}, "family, household, estate") and {{lang|grc|νόμος}} ({{lang|grc-Latn|nomos}}, "custom, law"), and hence means "household management" or "management of the state". An [[economist]] is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a [[academic degree|degree]] in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by [[Lionel Robbins]] in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses". Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no [[economic problem]]. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior".{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg|thumb|right|Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in [[Chichicastenango]] Market, [[Guatemala]].]]
Economics has two broad branches: [[microeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and [[macroeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from [[normative economics]], which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve [[Subjectivity|subjective]] value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the [[physiocrats|physiocratic school]]. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as [[public choice theory|politics]], law, [[Experimental economics|psychology]], [[Economic history|history]], [[religion]], marriage and family life, and other social interactions.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.<ref name="Imperialism"/><ref>[[Gary Becker|Becker, Gary S.]] (1976). [https://books.google.com/books?id=iwEOFKSKbMgC&dq=%22The+Economic+Approach+to+Human+Behavior%22+Introduction&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0 ''The Economic Approach to Human Behavior'']. University of Chicago Press.</ref>

===Education===
{{Main|Education|Outline of education}}
[[File:Laurentius de Voltolina Vorlesung vor Studenten - Min 1233 - Kupferstichkabinett Berlin.jpg|thumb|right|A depiction of world's oldest university, the [[University of Bologna]], in Italy]]
Education [[List of education topics|encompasses]] teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). To educate means 'to draw out', from the [[Latin]] ''educare'', or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], linguistics, [[neuroscience]], sociology and anthropology.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm|title=An overview of education|website=teachersmind.com}}</ref>

===Geography===
{{Main|Geography|Outline of geography}}
[[File:Physical World Map.svg|thumb|right|Map of the Earth]]
Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: [[human geography]] and [[physical geography]]. The former focuses largely on the [[built environment]] and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. This may involve [[cultural geography]], [[Transportation geography|transportation]], [[Health geography|health]], [[Military geography|military operations]], and [[Urban geography|cities]]. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, [[Oceanography|oceans]], water and [[landforms]] are produced and interact (is also commonly regarded as an [[Earth Science]]).<ref name="What is geography?"/> Physical geography examines phenomena related to the [[Geodesy|measurement of earth]]. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is [[environmental geography]]. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.<ref name="Hayes-Bohanan"/> Other [[Geography#Branches|branches of geography]] include [[social geography]], [[regional geography]], and [[geomatics]].

Geographers attempt to understand the Earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of [[mapmaking]] and finding ways to precisely [[Map projection|project]] the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. [[Historical geography]] is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to [[Geographic Information Science]], that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The fields of [[urban planning]], [[regional science]], and [[planetology]] are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as [[Geographic Information Systems]], [[remote sensing]], [[aerial photography]], [[statistics]], and [[global positioning systems]].

===History===
{{Main|History|Outline of history}}

History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories. When used as the name of a [[field of study]], ''history'' refers to the study and interpretation of the record of [[human]]s, societies, institutions, and any topic that has changed over time.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the [[humanities]]. In modern [[academia]], whether or not history remains a humanities-based subject is contested. In the United States the [[National Endowment for the Humanities]] includes history in its definition of humanities (as it does for applied linguistics).<ref>{{cite web |title=About NEH |publisher=National Endowment for the Humanities |url=http://www.neh.gov/about}}</ref> However, the [[United States National Research Council|National Research Council]] classifies history as a social science.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://books.nap.edu/readingroom/books/researchdoc/summary.html| title = Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change}}</ref> The [[historical method]] comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use [[primary source]]s and other evidence to research and then to [[historiography|write history]]. The [[Social Science History Association]], formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in [[social history]].<ref>See [http://www.ssha.org/ the SSHA website]</ref>

===Law===
{{Main|Law|Outline of law}}
[[File:Microcosm of London Plate 058 - Old Bailey edited.jpg|thumb|right|A trial at a criminal court, the [[Old Bailey]] in London]]
The social science of law, jurisprudence, in common parlance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of [[ethics]]) is capable of enforcement through institutions.<ref name="Crimes Against Humanity"/> However, many laws are based on [[norm (philosophy)|norms]] accepted by a community and thus have an ethical foundation. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",<ref name="hhc"/> as an "interpretive concept"<ref name="rdl"/> to achieve justice, as an "authority"<ref name="jra"/> to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".<ref name="jap"/> However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social science and the humanities. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about [[contract]], [[tort]], [[property law]], [[labour law]], [[company law]] and many more can have long-lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun ''law'' derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] {{lang|ang|lagu}}, meaning something laid down or fixed<ref>see [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none ''Etymonline Dictionary'']</ref> and the adjective ''legal'' comes from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|lex}}.<ref>see [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary'']</ref>

===Linguistics===
{{Main|Linguistics|Outline of linguistics}}
[[File:Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ferdinand de Saussure]], recognized as the father of modern [[linguistics]]]]
Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as [[syntax]] (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), [[semantics]] (the study of meaning), [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the study of the structure of words), [[phonetics]] (the study of speech sounds) and [[phonology]] (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like [[evolutionary linguistics]] (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and [[psycholinguistics]] (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anonymous |date=2022-03-02 |title=What is Linguistics? {{!}} linguistics |url=https://linguistics.ucdavis.edu/what-linguistics |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=linguistics.ucdavis.edu |language=en}}</ref>

The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly [[wikt:synchronic|synchronic]] perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of [[Noam Chomsky]]—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, [[Creole language|creole]] studies, [[discourse analysis]], social interactional linguistics, and [[sociolinguistics]] explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like [[acoustic phonetics]] and [[neurolinguistics]], draw on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Ferdinand Saussure]] was one of the founders of 20th century linguistics.<ref>Justin Wintle, ''Makers of modern culture'', Routledge, 2002, p. 467.</ref><ref>David Lodge, Nigel Wood, ''Modern Criticism and Theory: A Reader'', Pearson Education, 2008, p. 42.</ref><ref>Thomas, Margaret. 2011. Fifty Key Thinkers on Language and Linguistics. Routledge: London and New York. p. 145 ff.</ref><ref>Chapman, S. and C. Routledge. 2005. Key Thinkers in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language. Edinburgh University Press. p.241 ff.</ref>

===Political science===
{{Main|Political science|Outline of political science|Politics}}
[[File:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aristotle]] asserted that man is a political animal in his ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''.<ref>Ebenstein, Alan (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth.</ref>]]
Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of [[political system]]s and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include [[political economy]], [[political philosophy|political theory and philosophy]], civics and [[comparative politics]], theory of [[direct democracy]], apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, [[foreign policy]], [[international law]], politics, public administration, administrative behaviour, public law, judicial behaviour, and [[Policy|public policy]]. Political science also studies [[power in international relations]] and the theory of [[great powers]] and [[superpower]]s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the [[scientific method]],<ref>{{Cite book|isbn = 978-1-4039-3422-2|title = Rational Choice|last1 = Hindmoor|first1 = Andrew|year = 2006| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan }}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2014}} that is, the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include [[rational choice]], classical political philosophy, [[Interpretivism (social science)|interpretivism]], [[structuralism]], and [[behavioralism|behaviouralism]], [[Philosophical realism|realism]], pluralism, and [[Institutionalism in political parties|institutionalism]]. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as [[scholarly article]]s, are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include [[sample survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]] [[econometrics|or econometrics]], [[case studies]], experiments, and model building.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}}

===Psychology===
{{Main|Psychology|Outline of psychology}}{{More citations needed section|date=December 2023}}[[File:Wundt-research-group.jpg|thumb|right|[[Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt]] was the founder of [[experimental psychology]].]]
Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour and mental processes.<ref>[https://www.apa.org/support/about-apa Frequently asked questions about APA] Retrieved on November 28th, 2023.</ref>  Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of [[mental illness]].<ref name="APA_mission">"The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives"; APA (2010). [http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx ''About APA''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902193306/http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx |date=2 September 2017 }} Retrieved 20 October 2010.</ref><ref>Peter E. Nathan & James Langenbucher, "Diagnosis and Classification", in Weiner (ed.), ''Handbook of Psychology'' (2003), Volume 8: ''Clinical Psychology''.</ref> The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ψυχή}} ''([[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'', "soul" or "mind") and the suffix ''[[-logy|logy]]'' ("study").<ref name="OED">Online Etymology Dictionary. (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology "Psychology"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718053840/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=psychology |date=18 July 2017 }}.</ref>

Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behaviour. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from [[biology]] and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pinel |first=John |title=Biopsychology |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=New York |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-205-83256-9}}</ref>

Many people associate psychology with [[clinical psychology]],<ref name="brain">Brain, Christine. (2002). ''Advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives.'' Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. {{ISBN|0-17-490058-9}}</ref> which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, psychology has myriad specialties including [[social psychology]], [[developmental psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], [[educational psychology]], [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychology]], [[mathematical psychology]], neuropsychology, and [[Quantitative research|quantitative]] analysis of behaviour.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Psychology Subfields |url=https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields |archive-date= |access-date=January 17, 2024 |website=American Psychological Association}}</ref>

Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Jonathan |date=2002 |title=Biological, psychological and social processes in the conduct disorders |url=https://acamh.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1469-7610.00007?casa_token=UzGZ3akg5VQAAAAA%3ASjA3rTdIQwvnZIhjEri3kNxiGxhD5USHU_ZO8oVRlV-qfXUvyiRFaqmP1CUSotP6GMsdP6tlzqv--cHk |journal=Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=133–164 |doi=10.1111/1469-7610.00007 |issn=1469-7610}}</ref> is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mitchell |first=Jason P. |date=June 2009 |title=Social psychology as a natural kind |url=https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2935896/ |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=246–251 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2009.03.008 |issn=1364-6613 |pmc=2935896 |pmid=19427258}}</ref>

In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: [[Bachelor of Psychology|BPsy]] indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, [[BSc]] indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] underlines a majority of social science credits. This is not always necessarily the case however, and in many UK institutions students studying the [[Bachelor of Psychology|BPsy]], [[BSc]], and [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] follow the same curriculum as outlined by The [[British Psychological Society]] and have the same options of specialism open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied to read the [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]. for example, but specialized in heavily science-based modules, then they will still generally be awarded the [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]].{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

===Sociology===
{{Main|Sociology|Outline of sociology}}{{More citations needed section|date=December 2023}}[[File:Emile Durkheim.jpg|thumb|right|[[Émile Durkheim]] is considered one of the founding fathers of sociology.]]
Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human [[social action]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=SOC 218|last=Witt|first=Jon|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2018|isbn=978-1-259-70272-3|page=2}}</ref> The meaning of the word comes from the suffix ''-logy'', which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem ''soci-'', which is from the Latin word {{lang|la|socius}}, meaning "companion", or society in general.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford English dictionary. 15: Ser - soosy |date=1991 |publisher=Clarendon Pr |isbn=978-0-19-861227-8 |edition=2. ed., reprint. (with corr.) |location=Oxford |pages=914–916}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=The Oxford English dictionary. 8: Interval - looie |date=1991 |publisher=Clarendon Pr |isbn=978-0-19-861220-9 |edition=2. ed., reprint. (with corr.) |location=Oxford |pages=1114}}</ref>

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term ''sociology'' to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838.<ref>''A Dictionary of Sociology'', Article: Comte, Auguste</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=SOC 2018|last=Witt|first=Jon|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2018|isbn=978-1-259-70272-3}}</ref> Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in ''The Course in Positive Philosophy'' [1830–1842] and ''[[A General View of Positivism]]'' (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the [[University of Bordeaux]] in 1895, publishing his ''[[Rules of the Sociological Method]]''. In 1896, he established the journal {{lang|fr|[[L'Année sociologique]]}}. Durkheim's seminal monograph, ''[[Suicide (Durkheim book)|Suicide]]'' (1897), a case study of suicide rates among [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.<ref>Gianfranco Poggi (2000). ''Durkheim.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. Chapter 1.</ref>

[[Karl Marx]] rejected Comte's positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a ''science of society'' based on [[historical materialism]], becoming recognized as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. Around the start of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and [[Georg Simmel]], developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and [[structural functionalism]]; Marxist historical materialism and [[conflict theory]]; and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with [[pragmatism]] and [[social psychology]]. In the 1920s, the [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago school]] developed [[symbolic interactionism]]. Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the [[Frankfurt School]] pioneered the idea of [[critical theory]], an interdisciplinary form of [[Marxist sociology]] drawing upon thinkers as diverse as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after World War II, influencing [[literary criticism]] and the [[Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies|Birmingham School]] establishment of [[cultural studies]].{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of [[modernity]], such as [[industrialization]], [[urbanization]], [[secularization]], and a perceived process of enveloping [[Rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]].<ref>Habermas, Jürgen, ''[[The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity]]: Modernity's Consciousness of Time'', Polity Press (1990), paperback, {{ISBN|978-0-7456-0830-3}}, p. 2.</ref> The field generally concerns the [[social rule]]s and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of [[Voluntary association|associations]], [[Group (sociology)|groups]], [[Community|communities]] and [[social institution|institutions]], and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short [[Social relation|contacts]] between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of [[globalization|global social processes]]. In the terms of sociologists [[Peter L. Berger]] and [[Thomas Luckmann]], social scientists seek an understanding of the ''[[Social Construction of Reality]]''. Most sociologists work in one or more [[Subfields of sociology|subfields]]. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, [[social stratification]] studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance; and [[political sociology]] studies the interaction between society and state.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sakamoto |first=Arthur |title=Demography of Social Stratification |date=2005 |work=Handbook of Population |pages=383–416 |editor-last=Poston |editor-first=Dudley L. |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/0-387-23106-4_14 |access-date=2025-04-09 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/0-387-23106-4_14? |isbn=978-0-387-23106-8 |last2=Powers |first2=Daniel A. |editor2-last=Micklin |editor2-first=Michael}}</ref>

Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.<ref name="Giddens Intro"/> Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, draw upon empirical techniques, and engage critical theory.<ref name=":0" /> Common modern methods include case studies, [[historiography|historical research]], interviewing, [[participant observation]], [[social network analysis]], survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for purposes beyond the academy. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as [[evaluation research]], methodological assessment, and [[public sociology]].{{citation needed|date=January 2024}}

In the early 1970s, women sociologists began to question sociological paradigms and the invisibility of women in sociological studies, analysis, and courses.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Paradoxes of Gender|last=Lorber|first=Judith|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-300-06497-1|location=New Haven, CT}}</ref> In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the discipline's [[androcentrism]] at the American Sociological Association's annual conference.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://socwomen.org/sws-activism/|title=The Founding of SWS|last1=Laube|first1=Heather|last2=Hess|first2=Bess B.|date=2001|website=Sociologists for Women in Society|access-date=February 5, 2018}}</ref> This led to the founding of the organization Sociologists for Women in Society, and, eventually, a new sociology journal, [[Gender & Society]]. Today, the [[sociology of gender]] is considered to be one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline.<ref>{{Cite web |title=All About the Sociology of Gender |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/sociology-of-gender-3026282 |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}</ref>

New sociological sub-fields continue to appear&nbsp;— such as [[community studies]], [[computational sociology]], [[environmental sociology]], network analysis, [[actor-network theory]], gender studies, and a growing list, many of which are [[List of academic disciplines|cross-disciplinary]] in nature.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j0K5DwAAQBAJ|title=The Vietnamese Social Sciences at a Fork in the Road|last=Vuong|first=Quan-Hoang|date=2019|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-068608-1|language=en}}</ref>