Editing Spaced repetition (section)

==Research and application==
{{See also|Spacing effect}}

The notion that spaced repetition could be used for improving learning was first proposed in the book ''Psychology of Study'' by [[Cecil Alec Mace|C. A. Mace]] in 1932: "Perhaps the most important discoveries are those which relate to the appropriate distribution of the periods of study... Acts of revision should be spaced in gradually increasing intervals, roughly intervals of one day, two days, four days, eight days, and so on."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mace |first=C. A. |year=1932 |title=Psychology of Study |page=39 |author-link=Cecil Alec Mace }}</ref>

In 1939, H. F. Spitzer tested the effects of a type of spaced repetition on sixth-grade students in Iowa who were learning science facts.<ref>{{cite journal |first=H. F. |last=Spitzer |title=Studies in retention |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |volume=30 |pages=641–657 |year=1939 |issue=9 |doi=10.1037/h0063404 }}</ref> Spitzer tested over 3600 students in Iowa and showed that spaced repetition was effective. This early work went unnoticed, and the field was relatively quiet until the late 1960s when cognitive psychologists, including [[Arthur Melton|Melton]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=A. W. |last=Melton |title=The situation with respect to the spacing of repetitions and memory |journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=596–606 |year=1970 |doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(70)80107-4 |hdl=2027.42/32694 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and [[Thomas Landauer|Landauer]] and [[Robert A. Bjork|Bjork]],<ref>{{cite book |last1=Landauer |first1=T. K. |last2=Bjork |first2=R. A. |chapter=Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning |editor-first=M. |editor-last=Gruneberg |editor2-first=P. E. |editor2-last=Morris |editor3-first=R. N. |editor3-last=Sykes |title=Practical aspects of memory |publisher=Academic Press |year=1978 |isbn=0123050502 |pages=625–632 }}</ref> explored manipulation of repetition timing as a means to improve recall. Around the same time, [[Pimsleur Language Programs|Pimsleur language courses]] pioneered the practical application of spaced repetition theory to language learning, and in 1973 [[Sebastian Leitner]] devised his "[[Leitner system]]", an all-purpose spaced repetition learning system based on [[flashcard]]s.

With the increase in access to personal computers in the 1980s, spaced repetition began to be implemented with [[computer-assisted language learning]] software-based solutions (see {{Section link||Software}}), enabling automated scheduling and statistic gathering, scaling to thousands of cards scheduled individually.{{POV statement |1="Programs…tailor to learner performance" conveys the incorrect notion that flashcards do not do this |date=April 2014}} To enable the user to reach a target level of achievement (e.g. 90% of all material correctly recalled at any given time point), the software adjusts the repetition spacing interval. Material that is hard appears more often and material that is easy less often, with difficulty defined according to the ease with which the user is able to produce a correct response.

The data behind this initial research indicated that an increasing space between rehearsals (expanding) would yield a greater percentage of accuracy at test points.<ref name="L&B">Landauer, T., & Bjork, R. (1978). Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning. Practical Aspects of Memory, 625–632. Retrieved October 15, 2014. 
{{Cite web| url=http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/Landauer.Bjork.1978.pdf | title=Optimum rehearsal patterns and name learning | author1=T. K. Landauer | author2=R. A. Bjork | year=1978 | access-date=December 10, 2014 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150211223008/http://bjorklab.psych.ucla.edu/pubs/Landauer.Bjork.1978.pdf | archive-date=February 11, 2015}}</ref> Spaced repetition with expanding intervals is believed to be so effective because with each expanded interval of repetition it becomes more difficult to retrieve the information because of the time elapsed between test periods; this creates a deeper level of processing of the learned information in long-term memory at each point. Another reason that the expanding repetition model is believed to work so effectively is that the first test happens early on in the rehearsal process.<ref name="K&B">{{cite journal |last1=Karpicke |first1=Jeffrey D. |last2=Bauernschmidt |first2=Althea |title=Spaced retrieval: absolute spacing enhances learning regardless of relative spacing. |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition |date=2011 |volume=37 |issue=5 |pages=1250–1257 |doi=10.1037/a0023436 |pmid=21574747 |s2cid=16580641 }}</ref> The purpose of this is to increase repetition success. By having a first test that followed initial learning with a successful repetition, people are more likely to remember this successful repetition on the following tests.<ref>Karpicke, J., & Roediger, H. (2010). Is expanding retrieval a superior method for learning text materials? Memory & Cognition, 38(1), 116–124. {{doi|10.3758/MC.38.1.116}}.</ref> Although expanding retrieval is commonly associated with spaced repetition, a uniform retrieval schedule is also a form of spaced repetition procedure.<ref name="K&B" />

A study conducted by Bui et al. (2013) examined how the advantages of spaced repetition can be influenced by the difference in working memory and the complexity of tasks that occurs between the repetitions. The researchers found participants with a higher working memory benefited from spaced repetition and showed better performance on challenging tasks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bui |first1=D. C. |last2=Maddox |first2=G. B. |last3=Balota |first3=D. A. |date=2013 |title=The Roles of Working Memory and Intervening Task Difficulty in Determining the Benefits of Repetition |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=341–347|doi=10.3758/s13423-012-0352-5 |pmid=23224905 |pmc=4008940 }}</ref>

Spaced repetition is typically studied through the use of memorizing facts. Traditionally speaking, it has not been applied to fields that required some manipulation or thought beyond simple factual/[[Semantics|semantic]] information. A more recent study has shown that spaced repetition can benefit tasks such as solving math problems. In a study conducted by Pashler, Rohrer, Cepeda, and Carpenter,<ref name="PRCC">Pashler, H., Rohrer, D., Cepeda, N., & Carpenter, S. (2007). Enhancing learning and retarding forgetting: Choices and consequences. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 187–193.</ref> participants had to learn a simple math principle in either a spaced or massed retrieval schedule. The participants given the spaced repetition learning tasks showed higher scores on a final test distributed after their final practice session.<ref name="PRCC" />

This is unique in the sense that it shows spaced repetition can be used to not only remember simple facts or contextual data but it can also be used in fields, such as math, where manipulation and the use of particular principles or formulas (e.g. y = mx + b) is necessary. These researchers also found that it is beneficial for feedback to be applied when administering the tests. When a participant gave a wrong response, they were likely to get it correct on the following tests if the researcher gave them the correct answer after a delayed period.

Building on this, more recent studies have applied spaced repetition to procedural skill acquisition in complex domains. For example, a pilot study in neurosurgery training found that incorporating spaced repetition into a six-week simulation module improved residents’ proficiency in performing complex surgical procedures. Participants who engaged in structured, repeated practice showed significant improvements in objective performance metrics compared to those who trained using traditional methods alone.<ref>Robertson, Faith C et al. “Applying objective metrics to neurosurgical skill development with simulation and spaced repetition learning.” Journal of neurosurgery vol. 139,4 1092-1100. 10 Mar. 2023, doi:10.3171/2023.1.JNS222651</ref> This suggests that spaced repetition can effectively facilitate the acquisition of procedural knowledge in surgical contexts, including its demonstrated applications in other areas of medical training.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wollstein |first1=Y. |last2=Jabbour |first2=N. |date=2022 |title=Spaced Effect Learning and Blunting the Forgetfulness Curve |journal=Ear, Nose & Throat Journal |volume=101 |issue=9 |pages=42S–46S |doi=10.1177/01455613231163726 |pmid=36880338 |issn=0145-5613|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Spaced repetition is a useful tool for learning that is relevant to many domains such as fact learning, mathematics, and procedural skills, and many different tasks (expanding or uniform retrieval).<ref name="PRCC" /> Many studies over the years have contributed to the use and implementation of spaced repetition, and it still remains a subject of interest for many researchers.<ref>Brush, J., & Camp, C. (2008). Using Spaced Retrieval as an Intervention During Speech-Language Therapy. Clinical Gerontologist, 19(1), 51–64.</ref>

Over the years, techniques and tests have been formed to better patients with memory difficulties. Spaced repetition is one of these solutions to help better the patients' minds. Spaced repetition is used in many different areas of memory from remembering facts to remembering how to ride a bike to remembering past events from childhood.<ref name=Oren-2014>{{Cite journal |last1=Oren |first1=Shiri |last2=Willerton |first2=Charlene |last3=Small |first3=Jeff |date=February 2014 |title=Effects of Spaced Retrieval Training on Semantic Memory in Alzheimer's Disease: A Systematic Review |journal=Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research |language=en |volume=57 |issue=1 |pages=247–270 |doi=10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0352) |pmid=24023380 |issn=1092-4388}}</ref> Recovery practice is used to see if an individual is able to recall something immediately after they have seen or studied it. Increasing recovery practice is frequently used as a technique in improving [[long-term memory]], essentially for young children trying to learn and older individuals with [[Memory disorder|memory diseases]].<ref name=Karpicke-2007>Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. (2007). Expanding repetition practice promotes short-term retention, but equally spaced repetition enhances long-term retention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 704–719. {{doi|10.1037/0278-7393.33.4.704}}.</ref>