Editing Structural functionalism (section)

==Prominent theorists==

===Auguste Comte===
{{see|Law of three stages}}
[[Auguste Comte]], the "Father of [[Positivism]]", pointed out the need to keep society unified as many traditions were diminishing. He was the first person to coin the term ''sociology''. Comte suggests that sociology is the product of a three-stage development:<ref name=":4" />
# '''Theological stage''': From the beginning of human history until the end of the European [[Middle Ages]], people took a religious view that society expressed God's will.<ref name=":4" /> In the [[theological]] state, the human mind, seeking the essential nature of beings, the first and final causes (the origin and purpose) of all effects—in short, absolute knowledge—supposes all phenomena to be produced by the immediate action of supernatural beings.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Auguste Comte and positivism : the essential writings|author=Comte, Auguste|date=1998|publisher=Transaction Publishers|others=Lenzer, Gertrude.|isbn=978-0765804129|location=New Brunswick, NJ|oclc=37437499}}</ref>
# '''Metaphysical stage''': People began seeing society as a natural system as opposed to the supernatural. This began with [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] and the ideas of [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[John Locke|Locke]], and Rousseau. Perceptions of society reflected the failings of a selfish human nature rather than the perfection of God.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Sociology|last=J.|first=Macionis, John|date=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=9780205116713|edition= 14th|location=Boston|oclc=727658545}}</ref>
# '''Positive or scientific stage''': Describing society through the application of the [[Scientific method|scientific approach]], which draws on the work of scientists.<ref name=":5" />

===Herbert Spencer===
[[File:Herbert Spencer.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Herbert Spencer]]
[[Herbert Spencer]] (1820–1903) was a British [[philosopher]] famous for applying the theory of [[natural selection]] to society. He was in many ways the first true sociological functionalist.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Herbert Spencer : a renewed appreciation|last=H.|first=Turner, Jonathan|date=1985|publisher=Sage Publications|isbn=978-0803922440|location=Beverly Hills, California|oclc=11444338}}</ref> In fact, while Durkheim is widely considered the most important functionalist among positivist theorists, it is known that much of his analysis was culled from reading Spencer's work, especially his ''Principles of Sociology'' (1874–96).{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} In describing society, Spencer alludes to the analogy of a human body. Just as the structural parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs—function independently to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society.<ref name=":4" />

While reading Spencer's massive volumes can be tedious (long passages explicating the organic analogy, with reference to [[Cell (biology)|cells]], simple organisms, animals, humans and society), there are some important insights that have quietly influenced many contemporary theorists, including [[Talcott Parsons]], in his early work ''[[The Structure of Social Action]]'' (1937). [[Cultural anthropology]] also consistently uses functionalism.

This [[sociocultural evolution|evolutionary model]], unlike most 19th century evolutionary theories, is cyclical, beginning with the [[Differentiation (sociology)|differentiation]] and increasing complication of an organic or "super-organic" (Spencer's term for a [[social system]]) body, followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and disequilibrium (or a state of adjustment and [[adaptation]]), and, finally, the stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following [[Thomas Malthus]]' population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing [[selection pressure]]s (internal and external) that force it to adapt its internal structure through differentiation.

Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that threaten society's viability. Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that
# Selection pressures will be felt in time to change them;
# They will be felt and reacted to; or
# The solutions will always work.

In fact, he was in many ways a [[political sociologist]],<ref name=":6" /> and recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given polity could make or break its ability to adapt. In other words, he saw a general trend towards the centralization of power as leading to stagnation and ultimately, pressures to decentralize.

More specifically, Spencer recognized three functional needs or prerequisites that produce selection pressures: they are regulatory, operative (production) and distributive. He argued that all societies need to solve problems of control and coordination, production of goods, [[Service (economics)|services]] and [[idea]]s, and, finally, to find ways of distributing these resources.

Initially, in tribal societies, these three needs are inseparable, and the kinship system is the dominant structure that satisfies them. As many scholars have noted, all institutions are subsumed under kinship organization,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Human societies: an introduction to macrosociology|last=Nolan|first=Patrick|publisher=Paradigm Publishers|others=Lenski, Gerhard|year=2004|isbn=9781594515781|edition= 11th|location=Boulder|oclc=226355644}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Masters|first=Roger D.|date=March 1994|title=The social cage: Human nature and the evolution of society|journal=Ethology and Sociobiology|volume=15|issue=2|pages=107–111|doi=10.1016/0162-3095(94)90021-3|issn=0162-3095}}</ref> but, with increasing population (both in terms of sheer numbers and density), problems emerge with regard to feeding individuals, creating new forms of organization—consider the emergent division of labour—coordinating and controlling various differentiated social units, and developing systems of resource distribution.

The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill more specialized functions; thus, a chief or "big man" emerges, soon followed by a group of lieutenants, and later kings and administrators. The structural parts of society (e.g. families, work) function interdependently to help society function. Therefore, social structures work together to preserve society.<ref name=":4" />

===Talcott Parsons===
Talcott Parsons began writing in the 1930s and contributed to sociology, political science, anthropology, and psychology. Structural functionalism and Parsons have received much criticism. Numerous critics have pointed out Parsons' underemphasis of political and monetary struggle, the basics of social change, and the by and large "manipulative" conduct unregulated by qualities and standards. Structural functionalism, and a large portion of Parsons' works, appear to be insufficient in their definitions concerning the connections amongst institutionalized and non-institutionalized conduct, and the procedures by which [[Institutionalisation|institutionalization]] happens.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}

Parsons was heavily influenced by Durkheim and [[Max Weber]], synthesizing much of their work into his [[action theory (sociology)|action theory]], which he based on the system-theoretical concept and the methodological principle of [[voluntary action]]. He held that "the social system is made up of the actions of individuals".<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|title=Toward a General Theory of Action|last=W.|first=Allport, Gordon|date=1951|publisher=Harvard University Press|others=Kluckhohn, Clyde., Murray, Henry A., Parsons, Talcott., Sears, Robert R., Sheldon, Richard C., Shils, Edward A.|isbn=9780674863491|location=[Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar]|oclc=900849450}}</ref> His starting point, accordingly, is the interaction between two individuals faced with a variety of choices about how they might act,<ref name=":7" /> choices that are influenced and constrained by a number of physical and social factors.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Modern social theory: from Parsons to Habermas|last=Craib|first=Ian|date=1992|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0312086749|edition= 2nd|location=New York|oclc=26054873}}</ref>

Parsons determined that each individual has expectations of the other's action and reaction to their own behavior, and that these expectations would (if successful) be "derived" from the accepted norms and values of the society they inhabit.<ref name=":2" /> As Parsons himself emphasized, in a general context there would never exist any perfect "fit" between behaviors and norms, so such a relation is never complete or "perfect".

Social norms were always problematic for Parsons, who never claimed (as has often been alleged){{Citation needed|date=September 2018}} that social norms were generally accepted and agreed upon, should this prevent some kind of universal law. Whether social norms were accepted or not was for Parsons simply a historical question.

As behaviors are repeated in more interactions, and these expectations are entrenched or institutionalized, a [[role]] is created. Parsons defines a "role" as the normatively-regulated participation "of a person in a concrete process of social interaction with specific, concrete role-partners".<ref name=":2" /> Although any individual, theoretically, can fulfill any role, the individual is expected to conform to the norms governing the nature of the role they fulfill.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|title=Perspectives in sociology|last1=Cuff|first1=E. C.|last2=Payne|first2=G. C. F.|date=1979|publisher=G. Allen & Unwin|isbn=978-0043010914|location=London|oclc=4882507}}</ref>

Furthermore, one person can and does fulfill many different roles at the same time. In one sense, an individual can be seen to be a "composition"<ref name=":7" /> of the roles he inhabits. Certainly, today, when asked to describe themselves, most people would answer with reference to their societal roles.

Parsons later developed the idea of roles into collectivities of roles that complement each other in fulfilling functions for society.<ref name=":2" /> Some roles are bound up in [[institution]]s and social structures (economic, educational, legal and even gender-based). These are functional in the sense that they assist society in operating<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|url=http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm|title=Notes on Structural Functionalism and Parsons|last=Gingrich|date=1999|website=uregina.ca|access-date=25 April 2006}}</ref> and fulfilling its functional needs so that society runs smoothly.

Contrary to prevailing myth, Parsons never spoke about a society where there was no conflict or some kind of "perfect" equilibrium.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|title= Sociological Theory, 6th edition|last1=Ritzer|first1=G.|last2=Goodman|first2=D.|date=2004|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0-07281718-6|location=New York|edition=6th|oclc=52240022}}</ref> A society's cultural value-system was in the typical case never completely integrated, never static and most of the time, like in the case of the American society, in a complex state of transformation relative to its historical point of departure. To reach a "perfect" equilibrium was not any serious theoretical question in Parsons analysis of social systems, indeed, the most dynamic societies had generally cultural systems with important inner tensions like the US and India. These tensions were a source of their strength according to Parsons rather than the opposite. Parsons never thought about system-institutionalization and the level of strains (tensions, conflict) in the system as opposite forces per se.{{Citation needed|date=September 2018}}

The key processes for Parsons for system reproduction are [[socialization]] and [[social control]]. Socialization is important because it is the mechanism for transferring the accepted norms and values of society to the individuals within the system. Parsons never spoke about "perfect socialization"{{mdash}}in any society socialization was only partial and "incomplete" from an integral point of view.<ref name=":9" />

Parsons states that "this point ... is independent of the sense in which [the] individual is concretely autonomous or creative rather than 'passive' or 'conforming', for individuality and creativity, are to a considerable extent, phenomena of the institutionalization of expectations";<ref name=":2" /> they are culturally constructed.

Socialization is supported by the positive and negative sanctioning of role behaviours that do or do not meet these expectations.<ref name=":8" /> A punishment could be informal, like a snigger or gossip, or more formalized, through institutions such as prisons and mental homes. If these two processes were perfect, society would become static and unchanging, but in reality, this is unlikely to occur for long.

Parsons recognizes this, stating that he treats "the structure of the system as problematic and subject to change",<ref name=":2" /> and that his concept of the tendency towards equilibrium "does not imply the empirical dominance of stability over change".<ref name=":2" /> He does, however, believe that these changes occur in a relatively smooth way.

Individuals in interaction with changing situations adapt through a process of "role bargaining".<ref name=":9" /> Once the roles are established, they create norms that guide further action and are thus institutionalized, creating stability across social interactions. Where the adaptation process cannot adjust, due to sharp shocks or immediate radical change, structural dissolution occurs and either new structures (or therefore a new system) are formed, or society dies. This model of social change has been described as a "[[Moving equilibrium theorem|moving equilibrium]]",<ref name=":9" /> and emphasizes a desire for social order.

===Davis and Moore===
[[Kingsley Davis]] and [[Wilbert E. Moore]] (1945) gave an argument for [[social stratification]] based on the idea of "functional necessity" (also known as [[the Davis-Moore hypothesis]]). They argue that the most difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the [[division of labour]]. Thus, inequality serves social stability.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Kingsley|last2=Moore|first2=Wilbert E.|date=1945|title=Some Principles of Stratification|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=10|issue=2|pages=242–249|doi=10.2307/2085643|jstor=2085643}}</ref>

This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Health and social theory|last=De Maio|first=Fernando|date=1976–2010|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=9780230517424|location=Houndmills, Basingstoke|oclc=468854721}}</ref> the argument is both that the individuals who are the most deserving are the highest rewarded, and that ''a system of unequal rewards'' is necessary, otherwise no individuals would perform as needed for the society to function. The problem is that these rewards are supposed to be based upon objective merit, rather than subjective "motivations." The argument also does not clearly establish why some positions are worth more than others, even when they benefit more people in society, e.g., teachers compared to athletes and movie stars. Critics have suggested that [[structural inequality]] (inherited wealth, family power, etc.) is itself a cause of individual success or failure, not a consequence of it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tumin|first=Melvin M.|date=1953|title=Some Principles of Stratification: A Critical Analysis|journal=American Sociological Review|volume=18|issue=4|pages=387–394|doi=10.2307/2087551|jstor=2087551|s2cid=40879321}}</ref>

===Robert Merton===
[[Robert K. Merton]] made important refinements to functionalist thought.<ref name=":4" /> He fundamentally agreed with Parsons' theory but acknowledged that Parsons' theory could be questioned, believing that it was over generalized.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Modern social theory: an introduction|last=Holmwood|first=John|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Harrington, Austin, 1970|isbn=978-0199255702|location=Oxford|pages=87–110|oclc=56608295}}</ref> Merton tended to emphasize [[middle range theory (sociology)|middle range theory]] rather than a [[grand theory]], meaning that he was able to deal specifically with some of the limitations in Parsons' thinking. Merton believed that any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than others.<ref name=":4" /> He identified three main limitations: functional unity, universal functionalism and indispensability.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Contemporary sociological theory|last=George.|first=Ritzer|date=1988|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=0075538326|edition= 2nd|location=New York, N.Y. etc.|oclc=908996993}}</ref> He also developed the concept of deviance and made the distinction between [[Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions|manifest and latent functions]]. Manifest functions referred to the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. Latent functions referred to unrecognized and [[unintended consequences]] of any social pattern.<ref name=":4" />

Merton criticized functional unity, saying that not all parts of a modern complex society work for the functional unity of society. Consequently, there is a social dysfunction referred to as any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society.<ref name=":4" /> Some institutions and structures may have other functions, and some may even be generally dysfunctional, or be functional for some while being dysfunctional for others.<ref>In sociology, another term for describing a ''positive function'', in opposition to a ''dysfunction'', is eufunction.</ref> This is because not all structures are functional for society as a whole. Some practices are only functional for a dominant individual or a group.<ref name=":0" /> 

There are two types of functions that Merton discusses the "manifest functions" in that a social pattern can trigger a recognized and intended consequence. The manifest function of education includes preparing for a career by getting good grades, graduation and finding good job. The second type of function is "latent functions", where a social pattern results in an unrecognized or unintended consequence. The latent functions of education include meeting new people, extra-curricular activities, school trips.<ref name=":4" /> 

Another type of social function is "social dysfunction" which is any undesirable consequences that disrupts the operation of society.<ref name=":4" /> The social dysfunction of education includes not getting good grades, a job. Merton states that by recognizing and examining the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development and persistence of alternatives. Thus, as Holmwood states, "Merton explicitly made power and conflict central issues for research within a functionalist paradigm."<ref name=":0" />

Merton also noted that there may be functional alternatives to the institutions and structures currently fulfilling the functions of society. This means that the institutions that currently exist are not indispensable to society. Merton states "just as the same item may have multiple functions, so may the same function be diversely fulfilled by alternative items."<ref name=":0" /> This notion of functional alternatives is important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo.

Merton's theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim's idea of [[anomie]]. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and the accepted methods available for reaching them.

Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor.
* '''Conformity''' occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialized into them.
* '''Innovation''' occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel or unaccepted method.
* '''Ritualism''' occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.
* '''Retreatism''' is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.
* '''Rebellion''' is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means.
Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as the innovation or rebellion builds momentum, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution.

===Almond and Powell===
In the 1970s, [[political scientists]] [[Gabriel Almond]] and [[Bingham Powell]] introduced a structural-functionalist approach to comparing [[political systems]]. They argued that, in order to understand a political system, it is necessary to understand not only its institutions (or structures) but also their respective functions. They also insisted that these institutions, to be properly understood, must be placed in a meaningful and dynamic historical context.

This idea stood in marked contrast to prevalent approaches in the field of comparative politics—the state-society theory and the [[dependency theory]]. These were the descendants of [[David Easton]]'s system theory in [[international relations]], a mechanistic view that saw all political systems as essentially the same, subject to the same laws of "stimulus and response"—or inputs and outputs—while paying little attention to unique characteristics. The structural-functional approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of several key components, including [[interest group]]s, [[political parties]] and branches of government.

In addition to structures, Almond and Powell showed that a political system consists of various functions, chief among them political socialization, [[recruitment]] and [[communication]]: socialization refers to the way in which societies pass along their values and beliefs to succeeding [[generation]]s, and in political terms describe the process by which a society inculcates civic virtues, or the habits of effective citizenship; recruitment denotes the process by which a political system generates interest, engagement and participation from citizens; and communication refers to the way that a system promulgates its values and information.