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==Types== ===Universal suffrage=== {{Main|Universal suffrage}} [[File:Peterloo Massacre.png|thumb|The [[Peterloo Massacre]] of 1819]] [[Universal suffrage]] would be achieved when all have the right to vote without restriction. It could, for example, look like a system where everyone was presumed to have the right to vote unless a government can prove beyond a reasonable doubt the need to revoke voting rights.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hamilton |first=Vivian E. |year=2012 |title=Democratic Inclusion, Cognitive Development, and the Age of Electoral Majority |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2086875 |language=en |location=Rochester, NY |ssrn=2086875}}</ref> The trend towards universal suffrage has progressed in some democracies by eliminating some or all of the voting restrictions due to gender, race, religion, social status, education level, wealth, [[Non-citizen suffrage|citizenship]], ability and [[Voting age|age]]. However, throughout history the term 'universal suffrage' has meant different things with the different assumptions about the groups that were or were not deemed desirable voters. ==== Early history ==== The short-lived [[Corsican Republic]] (1755β1769) was the first country to grant limited universal suffrage to all citizens over the age of 25. In 1819, 60β80,000 women and men from 30 miles around Manchester assembled in the city's [[St Peter's Square, Manchester|St. Peter's Square]] to protest their lack of any representation in the Houses of Parliament. Historian [[Robert Poole (historian)|Robert Poole]] has called the [[Peterloo Massacre]] one of the defining moments of its age.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Poole |first1=Robert |author-link=Robert Poole (historian) |title='By the Law or the Sword': Peterloo Revisited |journal=History |volume=2 |issue=302 |date=April 2006 |pages=254β276 |jstor=24427836 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229X.2006.00366.x}}</ref> (The eponymous ''[[Peterloo (film)|Peterloo]]'' film featured a scene of women suffragists planning their contribution to the protest.) At that time Manchester had a population of around 140,000 and the population totals of [[Demographics of Greater Manchester|Greater Manchester]] were around 490,000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/data_cube_table_page.jsp?data_theme=T_POP&data_cube=N_TPop&u_id=10056925&c_id=10001043&add=N |title=Greater Manchester Met.C: Total Population |author=A Vision of Britain through time |access-date=6 April 2007}}</ref> This was followed by other experiments in the [[Paris Commune]] of 1871 and the island republic of [[Franceville, New Hebrides|Franceville]] (1889). From 1840 to 1852, the [[Kingdom of Hawai'i]] granted universal suffrage without mention of sex. In 1893, when the Kingdom of Hawai'i was [[Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom|overthrown in a coup]], [[New Zealand]] was the only independent country to practice universal (active) suffrage, and the [[Freedom in the World]] index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.<ref>Nohlen, Dieter, e al. (2001). ''Elections in Asia and the Pacific: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific''. p. 14. Oxford University Press, 2001</ref><ref>A. Kulinski, K. Pawlowski. ''The Atlantic Community β The Titanic of the XXI Century''. p. 96. WSB-NLU. 2010</ref> ====Women's suffrage==== {{Main|Women's suffrage}} [[File:SPD-Plakat 1919.jpg|thumb|German election poster from 1919: ''Equal rights β equal duties!'']] [[Women's suffrage]] is the right of women to vote.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/suffrage |title=Definition of SUFFRAGE |website=merriam-webster.com |language=en |access-date=1 July 2019}}</ref> This was the goal of the suffragists, who believed in using legal means, as well as the [[suffragette]]s, who used extremist measures. Short-lived suffrage equity was drafted into provisions of the State of New Jersey's first, 1776 Constitution, which extended the Right to Vote to unwed female landholders and black land owners. {{Blockquote|IV. That all inhabitants of this Colony, of full age, who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in the same, and have resided within the county in which they claim a vote for twelve months immediately preceding the election, shall be entitled to vote for Representatives in Council and Assembly; and also for all other public officers, that shall be elected by the people of the county at large. [[New Jersey]] ''1776''}} However, the document did not specify an Amendment procedure, and the provision was subsequently replaced in 1844 by the adoption of the [[1844 New Jersey Constitution|succeeding constitution]], which reverted to "all white male" suffrage restrictions.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.nj.us/njfacts/njdoc10.htm |title=The New Jersey Constitution of 1776 |access-date=17 December 2006}}</ref> Although the Kingdom of Hawai'i granted female suffrage in 1840, the right was rescinded in 1852. Limited voting rights were gained by some women in Sweden, Britain, and some western U.S. states in the 1860s. In 1893, the British colony of [[New Zealand]] became the first self-governing nation to extend the right to vote to all adult women.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elections.org.nz/study/education-centre/history/votes-for-women.html |title=Votes for Women |publisher=Electoral Commission of New Zealand |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819080640/http://www.elections.org.nz/study/education-centre/history/votes-for-women.html |archive-date=19 August 2012 |access-date=11 August 2020}}</ref> In 1894, the women of [[South Australia]] achieved the [[Constitutional Amendment (Adult Suffrage) Act 1894|right to both vote and stand for Parliament]]. The autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] in the [[Russian Empire]] was the first nation to allow all women to both vote and run for parliament. ==== Anti-women's suffrage propaganda ==== [[File:Anti Suffrage Postcard c.1908 03.jpg|thumb|A British postcard against women's suffrage postcard from {{Circa|1908}}. It shows unflattering [[caricature]]s of suffragettes in front of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|parliament]] and the caption: "This is the house that man built" with a poem. From the [[People's History Museum]], [[Manchester]].]] [[File:Votes For Women.jpg|thumb| Britain's [[Women's Social and Political Union|WSPU]] poster by [[Hilda Dallas]], 1909]] Those against the women's suffrage movement made public organizations to put down the political movement, with the main argument being that a woman's place was in the home, not polls. Political cartoons and public outrage over women's rights increased as the opposition to suffrage worked to organize legitimate groups campaigning against women's voting rights. The Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women was one organization that came out of the 1880s to put down the voting efforts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.crusadeforthevote.org/naows-opposition |title=Opposition to Suffrage |website=History of U.S. Woman's Suffrage |date=5 April 2016 |language=en-US |access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref> Much anti-suffrage propaganda poked fun at the idea of women in politics. Political cartoons displayed the most sentiment by portraying the issue of women's suffrage to be swapped with men's lives. Some mocked the popular suffrage hairstyle of full-upward combed hair. Others depicted young girls turning into suffragettes after a failure in life, such as not being married.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mentalfloss.com/article/52207/12-cruel-anti-suffragette-cartoons |title=12 Cruel Anti-Suffragette Cartoons |date=21 June 2015 |website=mentalfloss.com |language=en |access-date=4 April 2019}}</ref> ===Equal suffrage=== {{See also|Weighted voting}} Equal suffrage is sometimes confused with ''Universal suffrage'', although the meaning of the former is the removal of graded votes, wherein a voter could possess a number of votes in accordance with income, wealth or social status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/suffrage?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744%3Av0qd01-tdlq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=suffrage&sa=Search#906 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628223408/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/suffrage?cx=partner-pub-0939450753529744:v0qd01-tdlq&cof=FORID:9&ie=UTF-8&q=suffrage&sa=Search#906 |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 June 2011 |title=Definition: suffrage |publisher=Websters Dictionary |access-date=24 October 2011}}</ref> ===Passive suffrage=== {{Excerpt|Nomination rules|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}} ===Census suffrage=== Also known as "censitary suffrage", it is the opposite of ''equal suffrage,'' meaning that the votes cast by those eligible to vote are not equal, but weighed differently according to the person's income or rank in society (e.g., people who do not own property or whose income is lower than a given amount are barred from voting; or people with higher education have more votes than those with lower education; stockholders who have more shares in a given company have more votes than those with fewer shares). In many countries, census suffrage restricted who could vote and be elected: in the United States, until the [[Jacksonian democracy|Jacksonian reforms]] of the 1830s, only men who owned land of a specified acreage or monetary value could vote or participate in elections.<ref>{{Citation |first=Alexander |last=Keyssar |title=The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States |edition=2nd |year=2009 |page=5 |url=https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/keyssar_-_part_1.pdf}}.</ref> Similarly, in Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 established that, in order to vote, citizens would need to have an annual income of 200,000 milrΓ©is and, to be voted, their minimum annual income would need to be 400,000 milrΓ©is.<ref>{{Citation |title=Constitution of the Empire of Brazil |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Empire_of_Brazil}}</ref> ===Compulsory suffrage=== {{Main|Compulsory suffrage}} Where [[compulsory suffrage]] exists, those who are eligible to vote are required by law to do so. Thirty-two countries currently practise this form of suffrage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2123.html |title=CIA:The World Factbook |access-date=22 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109020202/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2123.html |archive-date=9 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> ===Business vote=== {{anchor|Business vote}}<!-- [[Business vote]] redirects here --> {{see also|Plural voting|Functional constituency (Hong Kong)|Indirectly elected member}} In [[local government in England]] and some of its ex-colonies, businesses formerly had, and in some places still have, a vote in the urban area in which they paid [[rates (tax)|rates]]. This is an extension of the historical property-based franchise from [[natural person]]s to other [[legal person]]s. In the United Kingdom, the [[Corporation of the City of London]] has retained and even expanded business vote, following the passing of the [[City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002]]. This has given business interests within the [[City of London]], which is a major [[financial centre]] with few residents, the opportunity to apply the accumulated wealth of the corporation to the development of an effective [[lobbying|lobby]] for UK policies.<ref name="Johal 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Johal |first1=Sukhdev |first2=Michael |last2=Moran |first3=Karel |last3=Williams |year=2012 |title=The future has been postponed: The Great Financial Crisis and British politics |journal=British Politics |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=69β81 |issn=1746-918X |doi=10.1057/bp.2011.30 |s2cid=153648412}}</ref><ref name="Leaver 2017">{{cite web |last1=Leaver |first1=Adam |title=Banking's groundhog day |url=https://www.redpepper.org.uk/bankings-groundhog-day/ |website=redpepper.org.uk |publisher=Red Pepper |access-date=21 December 2017}}</ref> This includes having the [[City Remembrancer]], financed by the [[City's Cash]], as a [[parliamentary agent]], provided with a special seat in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] located in the under-gallery facing the [[Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)|Speaker]]'s chair.<ref name="Hansard 2014">{{cite web |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm140303/text/140303w0001.htm#140303w0001.htm_sbhd0 |title=Written Answers to Questions β City of London Remembrancer |work=Hansard |publisher=UK Parliament |date=3 March 2014 |id=3 March 2014 : Column 593W |access-date=28 October 2014}}</ref> In a leaked document from 2012, an official report concerning the City's Cash revealed that the aim of major occasions such as set-piece sumptuous banquets featuring national politicians was "to increase the emphasis on complementing hospitality with business meetings consistent with the City corporation's role in supporting the City as a financial centre".<ref name="Mathiason 2012">{{cite news |last1=Mathiason |first1=Nick |last2=Newman |first2=Melanie |title=City of London Corporation: a lesson in lobbying |url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/09/city-london-corporation-lesson-lobbying |work=The Guardian |date=9 July 2012}}</ref> The first issue taken up by the [[Northern Ireland civil rights movement]] was the business vote, abolished in 1968 (a year before it was abolished in Great Britain outside the City of London).<ref name="Arthur 2014">{{cite book |editor-last1=Aughey |editor-first1=Arthur |editor-last2=Morrow |editor-first2=Duncan |last=Arthur |first=Paul |title=Northern Ireland Politics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s27XAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT24 |access-date=27 November 2015 |date=17 June 2014 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781317890836 |page=24 |chapter=Northern Ireland 1968β72}}</ref> In the [[Republic of Ireland]], commercial ratepayers{{#tag:ref|Strictly speaking, all ratepayers; however, domestic rates were abolished after the [[1977 Irish general election|1977 election]].<ref name="Callanan 2003">{{cite book |last1=Callanan |first1=Mark |last2=Keogan |first2=Justin F. |title=Local Government in Ireland: Inside Out |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P6OdT7MIflgC&pg=PA332 |access-date=8 January 2018 |year=2003 |publisher=Institute of Public Administration |isbn=9781902448930 |page=332}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1978/act/35/enacted/en/index.html |title=Local Government (Financial Provisions) Act, 1978 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]] |access-date=8 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://beta.oireachtas.ie/en/bills/bill/1977/36/?tab=debates |title=Local Government (Financial Provisions) Act, 1978 β Debates |work=Bills index |date=14 December 1977 |publisher=Oireachtas |access-date=8 January 2018}};</ref>|group="nb"}} can vote in local [[plebiscite]]s, for changing the [[Place names in Ireland|name of the locality or street]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1956/si/31/made/en/print |title=S.I. No. 31/1956 β Local Government (Changing of Place Names) Regulations, 1956. |work=[[Irish Statute Book]] |access-date=8 January 2018}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|For example [[South Dublin County Council]] produced lists of addresses of residences<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sdcc.ie/plebiscite-palmerston-addresses |title=Plebiscite Palmerston Addresses |year=2014 |publisher=South Dublin County Council |access-date=8 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063801/http://www.sdcc.ie/plebiscite-palmerston-addresses |archive-date=9 January 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and ratepayers<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sdcc.ie/plebiscite-palmerston-rated-occupiers |title=Plebiscite Palmerston Rated Occupiers |year=2014 |publisher=South Dublin County Council |access-date=8 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063640/http://www.sdcc.ie/plebiscite-palmerston-rated-occupiers |archive-date=9 January 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref> within [[Palmerstown]] for the 2014 plebiscite on changing the district's spelling.|group="nb"}} or delimiting a [[business improvement district]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2007/si/166/made/en/print |title=S.I. No. 166/2007 β Local Government (Business Improvement Districts Ratepayer Plebiscite) Regulations 2007 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]] |access-date=8 January 2018}}; {{cite web |url=https://www.dublincity.ie/councilmeetings/documents/s12708/04a%20Appendix%20A.pdf#page=11 |title=Q.50 β Councillor Mannix Flynn |work=Questions Lodged Pursuant to Standing Order No.16 for Reply at the Monthly Meeting of Dublin City Council to be Held on Monday, 4th September 2017 |pages=11β13 |access-date=8 January 2018 |archive-date=11 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211214143/https://www.dublincity.ie/councilmeetings/documents/s12708/04a%20Appendix%20A.pdf#page=11 |url-status=dead}}</ref> From 1930 to 1935, 5 of 35 members of [[Dublin City Council]] were "commercial members".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1930/act/27/enacted/en/print#sec31 |title=Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1930 Β§Β§31(1), 32(2)β(3), 34, 35 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]] |access-date=2 February 2017}}; {{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/1935/act/10/section/2/enacted/en/html#sec2 |title=Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1935, Section 2 |work=[[Irish Statute Book]] |access-date=2 February 2017}}</ref> In cities in most Australian states, voting is optional for businesses but compulsory for individuals.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/city-of-sydney-business-vote-plan-may-falter-backers-concede-20140815-104hs1.html |title=City of Sydney business vote plan may falter, backers concede |last1=Hasham |first1=Nicole |first2=Leesha |last2=McKenny |date=16 August 2014 |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |access-date=27 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.slate.com/articles/business/moneybox/2014/08/australia_businesses_get_to_vote_sydney_conservatives_want_it_to_be_required.html |title=Australia businesses get to vote: Sydney conservatives want it to be required by law. |last=Weissmann |first=Jordan |date=August 2014 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |access-date=27 November 2015}}</ref> Some [[List of municipalities in Delaware|municipalities in Delaware]] allow corporations to vote on local matters.<ref name="Ivanova 2023">{{cite news |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/seaford-delaware-corporate-voting-llc-trust-elections/ |title=A Delaware city is set to give corporations the right to vote in elections |last=Ivanova |first=Irina |date=21 June 2023 |work=Moneywatch |publisher=CBS News}}</ref>
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