Editing Tangier (section)

==History==
{{see also|Timeline of Tangier}}

===Ancient===
{{main|Tingis}}
[[File:Ruines de Tingis 1.jpg|thumb|right|Surviving parts of the wall of Roman [[Tingis]]]]
[[File:Prima Affrice Tabula.jpg|thumb|right|[[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s 1st African map, showing Roman [[Mauretania Tingitana]]]]

Tangier was founded as a [[Phoenicia]]n [[Phoenician colonies|colony]], possibly as early as the 10th century{{nbsp}}BCE{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=brad>{{harvp|Davies|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4QeOGV_zl4C&pg=PA119 119]}}.</ref> and almost certainly by the 8th century{{nbsp}}BCE.<ref name=sweethomealabama>{{harvp|Roller|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AFpzZfm7WdYC&pg=PT57 34]}}.</ref> The majority of [[Berbers|Berber]] tombs around Tangier had [[Punics|Punic]] jewelry by the 6th century{{nbsp}}BCE, speaking to abundant trade by that time.<ref>{{citation |last=Gómez Bellard |first=Carlos |contribution=Rural Landscapes of the Punic World |contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkwiAQAAIAAJ |date=January 2008 |title=Monographs in Mediterranean Archaeology |number=11 |author2=Peter van Dommelen |display-authors=1 |ref={{harvid|Gómez Bellard et al.|2008}} |location=London |publisher=Equinox |at=Ch. 5, p. 17 }}.</ref> The [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginians]] developed it as an important port of [[Carthaginian Empire|their empire]] by the 5th century{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=brad/> It was probably involved with the expeditions of [[Hanno the Navigator]] along the [[West Africa]]n coast.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}}<ref name=sweethomealabama/> The city long preserved its [[Phoenicia]]n traditions, issuing bronze coins under the [[Mauretania]]n kings with [[Punic script]]. Under the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] other coins were issued, bearing [[Augustus]] and [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]]'s heads and Latin script [[obverse]] but an image of the [[Canaanite religion|Canaanite god]] [[Baal]] [[obverse and reverse|reverse]].{{sfnp|Head et al.|1911}} Some editions of [[Procopius]] place his Punic [[Stele|stelae]] in Tingis rather than [[Tigisis in Numidia|Tigisis]];{{sfnp|Meakin|1899|p=[https://archive.org/details/moorishempireah02meakgoog/page/n40 10]}} in either case, however, their existence is highly dubious.{{sfnp|Amitay|2011}}

The Greeks knew this town as [[Tingis]] and, with [[interpretatio graeca|some modification]], record the [[Berber mythology|Berber legends]] of its founding. Supposedly [[Tinjis]], daughter of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] and widow of [[Antaeus]], slept with [[Hercules]] and bore him the son [[Sufax|Syphax]]. After Tinjis' death, Syphax then founded the port and named it in her honour.<ref name=plu>{{citation |author=L. Mestrius Plutarchus |author-link=Plutarch |title=Parallel Lives |contribution=15: Sertorius |contribution-url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Sertorius*.html |at=§9 |title-link=Parallel Lives }}.</ref> The gigantic skeleton and tomb of Antaeus were tourist attractions for ancient visitors.<ref name=plu/> The [[Caves of Hercules]], where he supposedly rested on [[Cape Spartel]] during [[Labors of Hercules|his labors]], remain one today.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

Tingis came under the control of the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] ally [[Mauretania]] during the [[Punic Wars]]. [[Quintus Sertorius|Q. Sertorius]], in [[Sertorian War|his war]] against [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]]'s [[Constitutional reforms of Sulla|regime in Rome]], took and held Tingis for several years in the 70s{{nbsp}}BCE. It was subsequently returned to the Mauretanians but established as a [[republic]]an [[Free city (classical antiquity)|free city]] during the reign of [[Bocchus III of Mauretania|Bocchus{{nbsp}}III]] in 38{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}}

Tingis received certain municipal privileges under [[Augustus]] and became a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Roman colonia|colony]] under [[Claudius]], who made it the provincial capital of [[Mauretania Tingitana]].{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1888}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} Under [[Diocletian]]'s [[Diocletian Reforms|291 reforms]], it became the seat of a [[comes|count]] (''{{lang|la|comes}}'') and Tingitana's [[praeses|governor]] (''{{lang|la|praeses}}'').{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} At the same time, the province itself shrank to little more than the ports along the coast and, owing to the [[Great Persecution]], Tingis was also the scene of the [[Christian martyrdom|martyrdoms]] by [[decapitation|beheading]] of [[Marcellus of Tangier|Saints{{nbsp}}Marcellus]] and [[Cassian of Tangier|Cassian]] in 298.{{sfnp|Hartley|2007|p=345}} Tingis remained the largest settlement in its province in the 4th century and was greatly developed.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}}

===Medieval===
[[File:Tangier4.JPG|right|thumb|Entrance gate to the medina]]
Probably invited by [[Bonifacius|Count Boniface]], who feared war with [[Galla Placidia|the empress dowager]],<ref name=pro/> tens of thousands of [[Vandals]] under [[Gaiseric]] crossed into [[North Africa]] in 429 CE and occupied Tingis<ref name=huckleberry>{{harvp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}}.</ref> and Mauretania as far east as [[Calama (Numidia)|Calama]]. When Boniface learned that he and the empress had been manipulated against each other by [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]], he attempted to compel the Vandals to return to Spain but was instead defeated at Calama in 431.<ref name=pro>{{citation |author=[[Procopius]] |title=History of the Wars |at=[[:s:History of the Wars/Book III|Bk. III]] |title-link=:s:History of the Wars }}.</ref> The Vandals lost control of Tingis and the rest of Mauretania in various Berber uprisings.

Tingis was reconquered by [[Belisarius]], the general of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor [[Justinian the Great|Justinian{{nbsp}}I]], in 533 as part of the [[Vandalic War]].<ref name=huckleberry/> The new provincial administration was moved, however, to the more defensible base at [[Septem (Ceuta)|Septem]] (present-day [[Ceuta]]).{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} Byzantine control probably yielded to pressure from [[Visigoth Spain]] around 618.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Morocco |volume= 18 |last1= Meakin |first1= James Edward Budgett |last2= Meakin |first2= Kate Alberta | pages = 850&ndash;861, see page 855, final two lines |quote= In the fifth century A.D. the country became subject to the Vandals and, about 618, to the Goths.}}</ref>

[[Count Julian]] of [[Ceuta]] supposedly led the last defences of Tangier against the [[Islamic conquest of the Maghreb|Muslim invasion of North Africa]].{{sfnp|Akram|1980|p=5}} [[Chivalric romance|Medieval romance]] made his betrayal of [[Christendom]] a personal vendetta against the [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] king [[Roderic]] over the honour of his daughter,{{sfnp|Collins|2003}} but Tangier at last fell to a siege{{sfnp|Akram|1980|p=9}} by the forces of [[Musa bin Nusayr]] sometime between 707{{sfnp|Gerli|2003}} and 711.{{sfnp|Brett|2017}}<ref>{{citation |author=Ibn Abd al-Hakam |title=The History of the Conquest of Egypt, North Africa, and Spain... |editor-last=Torrey |editor-first=Charles Cutler |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=1922 }}.</ref> While he moved south through central Morocco, he had his deputy at Tangier [[Tariq ibn Zayid]], Musa's ''[[mawla]]''{{sfnp|Collins|2003}}{{sfnp|Civantos|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GO0_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115]}} launch the beginning of the [[Islamic conquest of Spain|Muslim invasion of Spain]].{{sfnp|Gerli|2003}} [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] was frequently but erroneously credited with Tangier's conquest by medieval historians, but only owing to Musa's later commission at the hands of [[Al-Walid I]].<ref>{{citation |first=Ahmed |last=Benabbès |contribution=Les Premiers Raids Arabes en Numidie Byzantine: Questions Toponymiques |title=Identités et Cultures dans l'Algérie Antique |location=Rouen |publisher=University of Rouen |date=2005 }}. {{in lang|fr}}</ref>

Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]], Tangier served as the capital of the Moroccan district (''Maghreb al-Aqsa''<ref name=bad/> or ''al-Udwa'') of the [[Ifriqiya|province of Africa]] (''Ifriqiya''). The conquest of the Maghreb and Spain had, however, been undertaken principally as raids for [[Slavery in Islam|slaves]] and plunder and the caliphate's leadership continued to treat all Berbers as pagans or slaves for [[jizya|tax purposes]], even after their wholesale conversion to Islam.<ref name=brett>{{harvp|Brett|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 193]}}.</ref> In the area around Tangier, these hateful taxes were mostly paid in female slaves or in tender [[Lambskin (sheepskin)|lambskin]]s obtained by beating the ewes to induce [[premature birth]].<ref name=brett/> [[Yazid ibn Abi Muslim|Governor Yazid]] was murdered by Berber guards whom he had tattooed as slaves in {{c.|720}},<ref name=brett/> and in the 730s, similar treatment from [[Ubayd Allah ibn al-Habhab|Governor Ubayd Allah]] and [[Omar ibn Abd Allah al-Muradi|al-Muradi]], his deputy at Tangier, provoked the [[Berber Revolt]]. Inspired by the egalitarian [[Kharijite]] heresy, [[Barghawata]] and others under [[Maysara al-Matghari]] seized Tangier in the summer of 740.{{sfnp|Ilahiane|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRYuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 s.v. "Barghwata"]}}<ref name=brettt>{{harvp|Brett|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C1WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194]}}.</ref> In the [[Battle of the Nobles]] on the city's outskirts a few months later, Maysara's replacement [[Khalid ibn Hamid al-Zanati|Khalid ibn Hamid]] massacred the cream of Arab nobility in North Africa. An enraged [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik|Caliph Hisham]] ordered an attack from a second army "whose beginning is where they are and whose end is where I am," but this army was [[Battle of Bagdoura|defeated at Bagdoura]] the next year.{{sfnp|Blankinship|1994|pp=208–9}} The Barghawata were concentrated further south on the Atlantic coast, and area around Tangier fell into chaos until 785.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

The [[Zaidiyyah|Shia]] Arab refugee [[Idris I of Morocco|Idris]] arrived at Tangier{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} before moving further south, marrying into local tribes around [[Moulay Idriss]] and assembling an army that, among [[Idrisids|its other conquests]], took Tangier {{c.|790}}. During the division of the sultanate that occurred on the death of [[Idris II of Morocco|Idris{{nbsp}}II]], Tangier fell to his son [[Qasim ibn Idris|Qasim]] in 829.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} It was soon taken by Qasim's brother [[Umar ibn Idris|Umar]], who ruled it until his death in 835.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Umar's son [[Ali ibn Umar|Ali]] became sultan (r.{{nbsp}}874–883), as did Qasim's son [[Yahya ibn al-Qasim|Yahya]] after him (r.{{nbsp}}880–904), but they governed from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].

The [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliph [[Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah|Abdullah al-Madhi]] began interfering in Morocco in the early 10th century, prompting [[Abd ar-Rahman III|the Umayyad emir of Cordova]] to proclaim himself caliph and to begin supporting proxies against his rivals. He helped the [[Maghrawa Berbers]] overrun [[Melilla]] in 927, [[Ceuta]] in 931, and Tangier in 949.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Tangier's governor was subsequently named chief over Cordova's Moroccan possessions and allies.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} [[Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir|Ali ibn Hammud]], named Cordova's governor for Ceuta in 1013, took advantage of the realm's civil wars to conquer Tangier and [[Málaga]] before overrunning Cordova itself and proclaiming himself caliph in 1016. His Barghawata ally Rizḳ Allāh was then permitted to rule from Tangier with general autonomy.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

[[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] captured Tangier for the [[Almoravids]] in 1077.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} It fell to [[Abd al-Mumin]]'s [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]] in the 1147, and then flourished under his dynasty, with its port highly active.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

Like Ceuta, Tangier did not initially acknowledge the [[Marinids]] after the fall of the Almohads. Instead, the local chief [[Abu 'l-Hadidjadj Yusuf ibn Muhammad ibn al-Amir al-Hamdani|Yusuf ibn Muhammad]] pledged himself to the [[Hafsids]] in Tunisia and then to the [[Abbasids]] in the east before being killed in {{sc|ah}}{{nbsp}}665 (late 1266 or early 1267).{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Abd al-Haqq|Abu Yusuf Yaqub]] compelled Tangier's allegiance with a three months' siege in 1274.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

The next century was an obscure time of rebellions and difficulties for the city. During this time, the traveler [[Ibn Battuta]] was born in Tangier in 1304, leaving home at 20 for the [[hajj]].{{sfnp|Ilahiane|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aRYuDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 s.v. "Ibn Battuta Muhammad ibn ʿAbd Allah"]}} [[Barbary pirates|Piracy]] from Tangier and [[Salé]] began to harass shipping in the [[Strait of Gibraltar|strait]] and [[North Atlantic]] in the late 14th{{nbsp}}century.<ref name=huckleberry/> A partial plan of the late medieval [[kasbah]] was found in a Portuguese document now held by the [[Military Archives of Sweden]] in Stockholm.{{sfnp|Elbl|2012}}

=== Early modern ===
When the Portuguese started their [[Portuguese Empire|colonial expansion]] by [[Conquest of Ceuta|taking Ceuta]] in retribution for its piracy<ref name=huckleberry/> in 1415,<ref>B. W. Diffie, ''Prelude to Empire, Portugal Overseas before Henry the Navigator'', University of Nebraska Press, Ann Arbor, 1960, pp. 83–90.</ref> Tangier was always a major goal. They [[Battle of Tangier (1437)|failed to capture it in 1437]], 1458, and 1464,{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} but occupied it unopposed on 28 August 1471 after its garrison fled upon learning of the [[conquest of Asilah]].<ref name=eb>{{harvp|Elbl|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}}.</ref> As in Ceuta, they converted its chief mosque into the town's cathedral church; it was further embellished by several restorations during the town's occupation.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} In addition to the cathedral, the Portuguese raised European-style houses and [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] chapels and monasteries.<ref name=huckleberry/> The [[Wattasids]] assaulted Tangier in 1508, 1511, and 1515 but without success. In the 17th century, it passed with the rest of Portugal's domains into [[Spanish Empire|Spanish control]] as part of the [[Iberian Union|personal union of the crowns]]{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}} but maintained its Portuguese garrison and administration.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

[[File:1680s - J. Oliver - Tangier.jpg|thumb|Tangier in the 17th century]]
Iberian rule lasted until 1661,<ref name=huckleberry/> when it was given to [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s [[Charles II of England|King Charles{{nbsp}}II]] as part of the [[dowry]] of the Portuguese [[infanta]] [[Catherine of Braganza]].<ref>Winston S. Churchill, ''Marlborough: His Life and Times, Book I'' (University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1933) p. 35.</ref> A squadron under the admiral and ambassador [[Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich|Edward Montagu]] arrived in November. [[English Tangier]], fully occupied in January 1662,{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} was praised by Charles as "a jewell of immense value in the royal [[diadem]]"<ref name=huckleberry/> despite the departing Portuguese taking away everything they could, even{{mdash}}according to the official report{{mdash}}"the very fflowers, the Windowes and the Dores".{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12–13]}} Tangier received a [[Tangier Garrison|garrison]] and a charter which made it equal to other English towns, but the religious orders were expropriated, the Portuguese residents nearly entirely left, and the town's [[Judaism in Morocco|Jews]] were driven out owing to fears concerning their loyalty.{{sfnp|Finlayson|1992|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26–27]}} Meanwhile, the [[Queen's Royal Regiment (West Surrey)#Titles|Tangier Regiment]] were almost constantly under attack by locals who considered themselves ''[[mujahideen]]'' fighting a [[jihad|holy war]].{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Their principal leader was [[Khadir Ghaïlan]] (known to the English as "Gayland" or "Guyland") of the Banu Gurfat, whom the [[Henry Mordaunt, 2nd Earl of Peterborough|Earl of Peterborough]] attempted to buy off.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} Ultimately, the truce lasted only for part of 1663 and 1664; on May 4 of the latter year, the [[Andrew Rutherford, 1st Earl of Teviot|Earl of Teviot]] and around 470 members of the garrison [[Battle of Tangier (1664)|were killed in an ambush]] beside Jew's Hill.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} [[John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse|Lord Belasyse]] happened to secure a longer-lasting treaty in 1666:<ref>{{citation |title=Articles of Peace Concluded and Agreed between His Excellency the Lord Bellasyse, His Majesties Governour of His City and Garrison of Tangier in Affrica, &c. and Cidi Hamlet Hader Ben Ali Gayland, Prince of VVest-Barbary, &c. |date=2 April 1666 |location=London }}.</ref> Khadir Ghaïlan hoped to support a pretender against the new [[Alaouite dynasty|Alawid]] sultan [[Al-Rashid of Morocco|Al-Rashid]] and things subsequently went so badly for him that he was obliged to abide by its terms until his death in 1673.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}}

The English took advantage of the respite to improve greatly the Portuguese defences.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=651}} They also planned to improve the harbour by building a [[Mole (architecture)|mole]], which would have allowed it to play the same role that Gibraltar later played in British naval strategy. Incompetence, waste and outright fraud and embezzlement caused costs to swell; among those enriched was [[Samuel Pepys]].<ref>{{citation |last=Lincoln |first=Margarette |contribution=Samuel Pepys and Tangier, 1662–1684 |title=Huntington Library Quarterly |volume=77 |issue=4 |pages=417–434 |date=2014 |doi=10.1525/hlq.2014.77.4.417 }}.</ref> The mole cost [[GBP|£]]340,000 and reached {{convert|1436|ft|m|abbr=on}} long before its destruction.{{sfnp|Routh|1912}}{{sfnp|Elbl|2009}}{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|loc=Ch. 8}} Although funding was found for the fortifications, the garrison's pay was delayed until in December 1677 it was 2{{frac|1|4}} years in arrears; [[Palmes Fairborne|Governor Fairborne]] dealt with the ensuing [[mutiny]] by seizing one of the soldier's [[musket]]s and killing him with it on the spot.

A [[Great Siege of Tangier|determined siege]] by [[Ismail Ibn Sharif|Sultan Moulay Ismail]] of Morocco between 1678 and 1680 was unsuccessful,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bejjit |first=Karim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W7K1CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 |title=English Colonial Texts on Tangier, 1661–1684: Imperialism and the Politics of Resistance |publisher=Ashgate |year=2015 |pages=33–36 |isbn=978-1-317-14314-7 |language=en}}</ref> but longstanding exasperation with the colony's finances<ref name="finn" /> and the difficulties caused by the siege<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Abun-Nasr |first=Jamil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC |title=A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0521337674 |location=Cambridge |pages=232–233 |language=en}}</ref> pushed Parliament to write off the effort in 1680.<ref name="finn">{{harvp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28]}}.</ref> At the time, Tangier's population consisted of only about 700 apart from the thousand-man garrison; [[Percy Kirke|Governor Kirke]] estimated 400 of them had suffered [[gonorrhea]] from the same "mighty pretty" sex worker.<ref name="finn" /> Forces under [[George Legge, 1st Baron Dartmouth|Lord Dartmouth]] (including [[Samuel Pepys]]) methodically destroyed the town and its port facilities for five months prior to Morocco's occupation of the city on 7 February 1684.{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13–14]}}

Ali ibn Abdallah and his son Ahmed ibn Ali served in turn as the town's governors until 1743, repopulating it with populace from the surrounding countryside.{{sfnp|Finlayson|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z69sBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} They were powerful enough to oppose [[Abdallah of Morocco|Sultan Abdallah]] through his various reigns, giving support and asylum to his various rivals within and without the royal family.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=652}}

The city was attacked by Spain in 1790.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1888}}

=== Internationalisation ===
{{See also|Tangier International Zone|Spanish occupation of Tangier (1940–1945)}}
[[File:Morocco Tangier Port.jpg|thumb|Renschhausen building, erected around 1913 by German businessman Adolf Renschhausen, exemplar of German influence in pre-World-War-I Tangier]]
[[File:Morocco Tangier Bolsa.jpg|thumb|Former stock exchange building in the {{lang|fr|Ville Nouvelle}}]]

From the 18th century, Tangier served as Morocco's diplomatic headquarters.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} The United States dedicated its first consulate in Tangier during the [[Presidency of George Washington|George Washington's tenure as president]].<ref>[http://www.wweek.com/editorial/3314/8560/ ''Power, Faith and Fantasy: In the beginning, for America, was the Middle East''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070403104942/http://www.wweek.com/editorial/3314/8560/ |date=2007-04-03 }}, Matt Buckingham, week, February 14, 2007.</ref> In 1821, [[Tangier American Legation Museum|the Legation Building]] in Tangier became the first piece of property acquired abroad by the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]]—a gift to the U.S. from Sultan [[Slimane of Morocco|Moulay Suliman]].

In 1828, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Great Britain]] blockaded the port in retaliation for piracy.<ref name=EB>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Morocco |volume= 18 |last1= Meakin |first1= James Edward Budgett |last2= Meakin |first2= Kate Alberta | pages = 850&ndash;861, see page 857, final para |quote=By Sulaiman's direction the imperial umbrella passed to his nephew, Abd-er-Rahman II., on whom he could rely to maintain his policy. Although disposed to promote foreign trade, he made a futile attempt in 1828 to revive piracy, which the Austrians frustrated by reprisals next year. }}</ref> As part of [[French conquest of Algeria|its ongoing conquest]] of neighbouring [[Ottoman Algeria|Algeria]], [[July Monarchy|France]] [[Franco-Moroccan War|declared war]] over Moroccan tolerance of [[Emir Abdelkader|Abd el-Kader]]; Tangier was bombarded by a French fleet under the [[François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville|Prince of Joinville]] on 6 August 1844.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=652}} What little of its fortifications were damaged{{sfnp|Elbl|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AeTBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} were later repaired by English engineers,<ref name=bad>{{harvp|Baedeker|1901|p=[https://archive.org/stream/01710943.5406.emory.edu/01710943_5406#page/n599/mode/2up 426]}}.</ref> but French [[Battle of Isly|victory at Isly]] near the disputed border [[Treaty of Tangier (1844)|ended the conflict on French terms]].

Italian revolutionary hero [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] lived in exile at Tangier in late 1849 and the first half of 1850, following the fall of the revolutionary [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]].

Tangier's geographic location made it a centre of [[Europe]]an diplomatic and commercial rivalry in Morocco in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |last= Bensoussan |first=David |title= Il Était Une Fois Le Maroc: Témoignages Du Passé Judéo-Marocain|year=2010 |publisher=Éditions Du Lys |location=Québec |isbn=978-2-922505-21-4 |language=fr}}</ref> By the 1870s, it was the site of every foreign embassy and consul in Morocco but only held about 400 foreign residents out of a total population of around 20,000.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1888}} The city increasingly came under French influence, and it was here in 1905 that [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm{{nbsp}}II]] triggered [[Tangier Crisis|an international crisis]] that almost led to war between his country and France by pronouncing himself in favour of Morocco's continued independence, with an eye to its future acquisition by the [[German Empire]]. The [[Algeciras Conference]] which ended the standoff left Tangier's [[police of Morocco|police]] training and [[Customs (tax)|customs]] collections in international hands{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} but Britain's strong support of its "[[Entente Cordiale]]" with France ended German hopes concerning Morocco.

Improved harbour facilities were completed in 1907, with an inner and outer [[Mole (architecture)|mole]].{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}} In 1905 the first Moroccan newspaper, ''Lisan al-Maghrib'' ("The Voice of Morocco"), was established in Tangiers on the order of Sultan [[Abdelaziz of Morocco|Abdelaziz]], partly with the aim of counteracting the views expressed by ''al-Sa'adah'', an Arabic newspaper established in 1904 or 1905 by the French embassy in the city.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The newspaper was founded and managed on behalf of the government by two Lebanese journalists, Faraj and Artur Numur.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Abdulrazak|first=Fawzi A.|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/136986020/The-Kingdom-of-the-Book-the-History-of-Printing-as-an-Agency-of-Change-in-Morocco-1865-1912-F-Abdulrazak|title=The kingdom of the book: The history of printing as an agency of change in Morocco between 1865 and 1912|publisher=Boston University (PhD thesis)|year=1990|pages=141–142}}</ref> It later became more notorious for publishing reformist ideas and views critical of the sultan.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Susan Gilson|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=peGyku_eREkC&q=lisan+al-maghrib|title=A History of Modern Morocco|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-521-81070-8|pages=85–86|language=en}}</ref> In the years leading up to the [[First World War]], Tangier had a population of about 40,000, about half Muslim, a quarter [[Judaism in Morocco|Jewish]], and a quarter European Christians. Of the Europeans, about three-quarters were Spanish artisans and labourers.{{sfnp|''Encyclopædia Britannica''|1911}}{{sfnp|''Cath. Enc.''|1913}}

In 1912, the [[Treaty of Fes]] established the [[French protectorate in Morocco|French protectorate]] over most of Morocco and [[Spanish Morocco|Spanish rule]] in the country's far south and north, but left Tangier's status for further determination. [[Hubert Lyautey]] persuaded the last Sultan of independent Morocco, [[Abdelhafid of Morocco|Abdelhafid]], to abdicate in exchange for the receipt of a massive pension.<ref>{{citation |title=Morocco: From Empire to Independence |author=Richard Pennell |publisher=Oneworld |location=Oxford |date=2003 |page=140}}</ref> Abdelhafid planned to live in Tangier where he used part of his pension to build an opulent mansion west of the old city, the [[Abdelhafid Palace]], completed in 1914.<ref>{{cite web |website=Guía de Marruecos |url=https://www.guiademarruecos.com/el-norte/tanger/ruta-turismo-historico-tanger/ |title=Ruta por el Tánger histórico |date=2020-03-10 }}</ref> The complex was later purchased by Italian interests and is now also known as the "Palace of Italian Institutions" ({{langx|fr|palais des institutions italiennes}}).<ref>{{cite web |website=Hotel Tanger |url=https://www.hotel-tanger.com/palais-institutions-italiennes-0603 |title=Palais Moulay Hafid|date=2 April 2013 }}</ref> The [[standard-gauge]] Franco-Spanish [[Tangier–Fez Railway]] ({{langx|fr|Compagnie Franco-Espagnole du Tanger–Fès}}) was constructed from 1919 to 1927.

The [[Tangier International Zone]] was created under the joint administration of France, Spain and the [[United Kingdom]] by an international convention signed in Paris on 18 December 1923.<ref>"New Status of Tangiers", The Times of London, November 27, 1923.</ref> Ratifications were exchanged in Paris on 14 May 1924, and the convention was registered in ''League of Nations Treaty Series'' on 13 September 1924.<ref>''League of Nations Treaty Series'', vol. 28, pp. 542–631.</ref> It was amended by a protocol of July 1928 to elevate the status of Italy, an idea put forth by [[Austen Chamberlain|Sir Austen Chamberlain]] of Great Britain.<ref>{{Citation |title=From Our Own Correspondent: Gallipoli and the Western Front |date=2006 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5040/9780755621996.ch-008 |work=War, Journalism and the Shaping of the Twentieth Century |access-date=2023-04-18 |publisher=I.B.Tauris|doi=10.5040/9780755621996.ch-008 |isbn=978-1-84511-081-9 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The European powers' creation of the statute of Tangier promoted the formation of a cosmopolitan society where Muslims, Christians, and Jews lived together with reciprocal respect and tolerance. A town where men and women, with many different political and ideological tendencies, found refuge, including Spaniards from the right or from the left, Jews fleeing Nazi Germany and Moroccan dissidents. With very liberal economic and fiscal laws, Tangier became - in an international environment full of restrictions, prohibitions and monopolies - a tax haven with absolute freedom of trade.<ref><Ceballos, Leopoldo, Historia de Tánger, Almuzara, 2009, pp. 10-11 and 23-24></ref> The International Zone of Tangier had a {{convert|373|km2|abbr=on}} area and, by the mid-1930s, a population of about 50,000 inhabitants: 30,000 Muslims; 12,000 Jews; and 8,000-odd Europeans, with a decreasing proportion of working-class Spaniards.{{sfnp|Lévi-Provençal|1936|p=650}} At its peak in the 1940s, there were 22,000 Jews in Tangier.<ref>{{cite web |title= Unveiling Tangier's Hidden Gems: Discovering the Jewish Heritage Sites |url= https://moroccotravelblog.com/2023/12/01/unveiling-tangiers-hidden-gems/ |website= moroccotravelblog |access-date=27 November 2024}}</ref>

Spanish troops occupied Tangier on 14 June 1940, the same day [[Battle of France|Paris fell to the Germans]]. Despite calls by Spanish nationalists to annex "''{{lang|es|Tánger español}}''", the [[Francoist Spain|Franco regime]] publicly considered the occupation a temporary [[Spain in World War II|wartime measure]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Payne |first=S.G. |title=The Franco Regime, 1936–1975 |location=Madison |publisher=University of Wisconsin |date=1987 |page=268}}</ref> A diplomatic dispute between Britain and Spain over the latter's abolition of the city's international institutions in November 1940 led to a further guarantee of British rights and a Spanish promise not to fortify the area.{{sfn |Payne|1987| p=274, note 28}} The territory was restored to its pre-war status on October 11, 1945.<ref>{{Cite journal | first =Assistant Secretary | last =Benton| title =Reestablishment of the International Regime in Tangier |journal =Department of State Bulletin | series =330 | pages=613–618| volume =XIII | date =October 21, 1945 | url = https://archive.org/stream/departmentofstatx1345unit#page/613/mode/1up }}</ref>

=== Moroccan independence ===

The Tangier International Zone played an important role in the campaign for Moroccan independence.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Stenner |first=David |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |date=2019-05-14 |work=Globalizing Morocco |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503609006/html |access-date=2024-03-20 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781503609006 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6|url-access=subscription }}, page 20.</ref> Because of its legal status as an international zone, activists were able to meet in Tangier, relatively protected from the French and Spanish authorities.<ref name=":2" /> In 1951, the National Front was created in Tangier, a pact between Morocco's four nationalist parties to coordinate their campaign to achieve Moroccan independence.<ref>{{Citation |last=Stenner |first=David |title=Globalizing Morocco: Transnational Activism and the Postcolonial State |date=2019-05-14 |work=Globalizing Morocco |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781503609006/html |access-date=2024-03-20 |publisher=Stanford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781503609006 |isbn=978-1-5036-0900-6|url-access=subscription }}, page 17</ref>

In July 1952 the protecting powers met at [[Rabat]] to discuss the International Zone's future, agreeing to abolish it. Tangier joined with the rest of Morocco following the restoration of full sovereignty in 1956.<ref>{{cite web|title = Final Declaration of the International Conference in Tangier and annexed Protocol. Signed at Tangier, on 29 October 1956 [1957] UNTSer 130; 263 UNTS 165 |url = http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/treaties/UNTSer/1957/130.html|date = 1956}}</ref> At the time of the handover, Tangier had a population of around 40,000 Muslims; 31,000 Christians; and 15,000 Jews.<ref>{{citation |contribution-url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |contribution=Tangier(s) |title=Jewish Virtual Library |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118222408/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0019_0_19572.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 |title-link=Jewish Virtual Library }}.</ref>

<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
File:Planta de Tanger, Leonardo de Ferrari, 1655.jpg|Leonardo de Ferrari's plan of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] fortifications at Tangier, c.{{nbsp}}1655.
File:The land of the Moors; a comprehensive description (1901) (14780828702).jpg|[[Wenceslaus Hollar|Hollar]]'s landscape of Tanger at the beginning of [[English Tangier|its English occupation]]
File:Baedeker's Spain and Portugal- Tangier (1901).jpg|Tangier c.{{nbsp}}1901
File:Editorial cartoon about the Perdicaris Incident.jpg|A 1904 [[editorial cartoon]] illustrating the [[gunboat diplomacy]] involved in resolving the [[Perdicaris Incident]].
File:ETH-BIB-Sicht_auf_Tanger-Nordafrikaflug_1932-LBS_MH02-13-0452.tif|Aerial view of Tangier in 1932
File:Tangier Zone txu-oclc-6949452-ni30-1.jpg|Tangier and [[Tangier International Zone|its mid-20th-century international zone]]
</gallery>