Editing Testudo formation (section)

== Tactical analysis ==

The ''testudo'' was used to protect soldiers from all types of missiles. It could be formed by immobile troops and troops on the march. The primary drawback to the formation was that, because of its density, the men found it more difficult to fight in hand-to-hand combat and because the men were required to move in unison, speed was sacrificed. As "[[phoulkon]]", it played a great role in the tactics employed by the Byzantines against their eastern enemies.

The ''testudo'' was not invincible, as [[Cassius Dio]] also gives an account of a Roman shield array being defeated by [[Parthia]]n [[cataphract]]s and [[cavalry archer|horse archers]] at the [[Battle of Carrhae]]:

{{blockquote|For if [the legionaries] decided to lock shields for the purpose of avoiding the arrows by the closeness of their array, the [cataphracts] were upon them with a rush, striking down some, and at least scattering the others; and if they extended their rank to avoid this, they would be struck with the arrows.}}

[[Tacitus]] recorded its use during the siege of the city of [[Cremona]] by the troops of [[Vespasian]] under command of [[Marcus Antonius Primus]]. During the attack the troops advanced under the rampart "holding their shields above their heads in close 'tortoise' formation".<ref>Tacitus, ''Histories''. Book III. The Fate of Cremona.</ref>