Editing Tironian notes (section)

==History==
===Development===
Before Tironian shorthand became popularized,  literature professor Anthony Di Renzo explains, "no true Latin shorthand existed." The only systematized form of abbreviation in Latin was used for legal notations ({{lang|la|notae juris}}). This system, however, was deliberately abstruse and accessible only to people with specialized knowledge. Otherwise, shorthand was improvised for note-taking or writing personal communications, and some of these notations would not have been understood outside of closed circles. Some abbreviations of Latin words and phrases were commonly recognized, such as those of [[praenomina]], and were typically used for [[inscriptions]] on monuments.<ref name="DiRenzo" />

Scholars infer that [[Marcus Tullius Cicero]] (106–43&nbsp;BC) recognized the need for a comprehensive, standard Latin notation system after learning about the Greek shorthand system. Cicero presumably delegated the task of creating such a system for Latin to his slave and personal secretary [[Marcus Tullius Tiro|Tiro]]. Tiro's position required him to quickly and accurately transcribe dictations from Cicero, such as speeches, professional and personal correspondence, and business transactions, sometimes while walking through the [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] or during fast-paced and contentious government and legal proceedings.<ref name="DiRenzo" /> Nicknamed "the father of stenography" by historians,<ref name="Mitzschke 1882" /> Tiro developed a highly refined and accurate method that used [[Latin letters]] and abstract symbols to represent [[preposition]]s, truncated words, [[Contraction (grammar)|contractions]], syllables, and [[inflection]]s. According to Di Renzo: "Tiro then combined these mixed signs like notes in a score to record not just phrases, but, as Cicero marvels in a letter to [[Titus Pomponius Atticus|Atticus]], 'whole sentences.'"<ref name= "DiRenzo" /> Tiro's highly refined and accurate method became the first standardized and widely adopted system of Latin shorthand.<ref name= "DiRenzo" /> The system consisted of abbreviations and [[Symbol|abstract symbols]], which were either contrived by Tiro or borrowed from Greek shorthand.

[[File:Example of tironian Notes.svg|thumb|center|800px|Table with examples of Tironian notes which can be modified with various marks to form more complex ideas. A syllable being a consonant followed by a vowel.]]

===Controversy===
[[Dio Cassius]] attributes the invention of shorthand to [[Gaius Maecenas|Maecenas]], and states that he employed his freedman Aquila in teaching the system to numerous others.<ref>Dio Cassius. ''Roman History''. 55.7.6</ref> [[Isidore of Seville]], however, details another version of the early history of the system, ascribing the invention of the art to [[Ennius|Quintus Ennius]], who he says invented 1100 marks ({{langx|la|notae}}). Isidore states that Tiro brought the practice to Rome, but only used Tironian notes for prepositions.<ref name="Isidorus">Isidorus. ''[[Etymologiae]]'' or ''Originum'' I.21ff, Gothofred, editor</ref> According to [[Plutarch]] in "Life of Cato the Younger", Cicero's secretaries established the first examples of the art of Latin shorthand:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Plutarch |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Plutarch%27s_Lives_(Clough,_v.4,_1865).djvu/401 |title=Plutarch's Lives |date=1865 |publisher=Little, Brown, and Company |volume=IV |location=Boston |pages=393 |translator-last=Dryden |translator-first=John |translator-last2=Clough |translator-first2=Arthur Hugh |translator-link=John Dryden |translator-link2=Arthur Hugh Clough}}</ref>

{{blockquote|This only of all Cato’s speeches, it is said, was preserved; for Cicero, the consul, had disposed, in various parts of the senate-house, several of the most expert and rapid writers, whom he had taught to make figures comprising numerous words in a few short strokes; as up to that time they had not used those we call short-hand writers, who then, as it is said, established the first example of the art.}}

===Introduction===
There are no surviving copies of Tiro's original manual and code, so knowledge of it is based on biographical records and copies of Tironian tables from the [[medieval period]].<ref name="DiRenzo" /> Historians typically date the invention of Tiro's system as 63&nbsp;BC, when it was first used in official government business according to [[Plutarch]] in his biography of [[Cato the Younger]] in ''The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romans''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Administrative Slavery in the Ancient Roman Republic: The Value of Marcus Tullius Tiro in Ciceronian Rhetoric |first=Zach |last=Bankston |journal=Rhetoric Review |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=203–218 |date=2012 |doi=10.1080/07350198.2012.683991 |s2cid=145385697}}</ref> Before Tiro's system was institutionalized, he used it himself as he was developing and fine-tuning it, which historians suspect may have been as early as 75&nbsp;BC, when Cicero held public office in [[Sicily (Roman province)|Sicily]] and needed his notes and correspondences to be written in code to protect sensitive information he gathered about corruption among other government officials there.<ref name="DiRenzo" />

There is evidence that Tiro taught his system to Cicero and his other scribes, and possibly to his friends and family, before it came into wide use. In "Life of Cato the Younger", [[Plutarch]] wrote that during Senate hearings in {{no wrap|65 BC}} relating to the [[first Catilinarian conspiracy]], Tiro and Cicero's other secretaries were in the audience meticulously and rapidly transcribing Cicero's oration. On many of the oldest Tironian tables, lines from this speech were frequently used as examples, leading scholars to theorize it was originally transcribed using Tironian shorthand. Scholars also believe that in preparation for speeches, Tiro drafted outlines in shorthand that Cicero used as notes while speaking.<ref name="DiRenzo" />

===Expansion===
Isidore tells of the development of additional Tironian notes by various hands, such as Vipsanius, Philargius, and Aquila (as above), until [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] systematized the various marks to be approximately 5000 in number.<ref name="Isidorus" />

===Use in the Middle Ages===
[[File:Tironian et Dunstan.jpg|thumb|upright 0.25|Tironian ''et'' in an Anglo-Saxon manuscript]]
Entering the Middle Ages, Tiro's shorthand was often used in combination with other abbreviations and the original symbols were expanded to 14,000 symbols during the [[Carolingian dynasty]], but it fell out of favor as shorthand and was forgotten until interest was rekindled by [[Thomas Becket]], [[archbishop of Canterbury]], in the 12th century.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Shorthand |first=Allien R. |last=Russon |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |date=15 August 2023 |url= https://www.britannica.com/topic/shorthand |access-date=1 August 2016}}</ref> In the 15th century [[Johannes Trithemius]], abbot of the Benedictine abbey of [[Sponheim]] in Germany, discovered the ''notae Benenses'': a psalm and a Ciceronian lexicon written in Tironian shorthand.<ref>{{cite book |first=David A. |last=King |title=[[The Ciphers of the Monks: A Forgotten Number-notation of the Middle Ages]]}}</ref>

In [[Old English]] manuscripts, the Tironian {{lang|la|et}} served as both a phonetic and morphological place holder. For instance, a Tironian {{lang|la|et}} between two words would be phonetically pronounced ''ond'' and would mean 'and'. However, if the Tironian {{lang|la|et}} followed the letter ''s'', then it would be phonetically pronounced ''sond'' and mean 'water' (ancestral to [[Modern English]] ''[[Sound (geography)|sound]]'' in the geographical sense). This additional function of a phonetic as well as a conjunction placeholder has escaped formal Modern English; for example, one may not spell the word ''sand'' as ''s&'' (although this occurs in an informal style practised on certain Internet forums and sometimes in texting and other forms of instant messaging). This practice was distinct from the occasional use of ''&c.'' for ''etc.'', where the ''&'' is interpreted as the Latin word {{lang|la|et}} ('and') and the ''c.'' is an abbreviation for Latin {{lang|la|cetera}} ('[the] rest').