Editing Transistor (section)

===Bipolar transistors===
{{See|Point-contact transistor|Bipolar junction transistor}}
[[File:Bardeen Shockley Brattain 1948.JPG|thumb|[[John Bardeen]], [[William Shockley]], and [[Walter Brattain]] at [[Bell Labs]] in 1948; Bardeen and Brattain invented the [[point-contact transistor]] in 1947 and Shockley invented the [[bipolar junction transistor]] in 1948.]]
[[File:Replica-of-first-transistor.jpg|thumb|A replica of the first working transistor, a [[point-contact transistor]] invented in 1947]]
[[File:Herbert F. Mataré 1950.png|thumb|[[Herbert Mataré]] (pictured in 1950) independently invented a point-contact transistor in June 1948.]]
[[File: Philco Surface Barrier transistor=1953.jpg|thumb|A Philco surface-barrier transistor developed and produced in 1953]]
From November 17 to December 23, 1947, [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] at [[AT&T Corporation|AT&T]]'s [[Bell Labs]] in [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]], performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of [[germanium]], a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input.<ref>{{cite web| title=November 17 – December 23, 1947: Invention of the First Transistor| publisher=American Physical Society| url=http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm| url-status=live| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120065607/http://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200011/history.cfm| archive-date=January 20, 2013| df=mdy-all}}</ref> Solid State Physics Group leader [[William Shockley]] saw the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of [[Semiconductor|semiconductors]]. The term ''transistor'' was coined by [[John R. Pierce]] as a contraction of the term ''[[transresistance]]''.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Millman, S. |title=A History of Engineering and Science in the Bell System, Physical Science (1925–1980)|  page=102|year=1983|publisher=AT&T Bell Laboratories}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bodanis, David |title=Electric Universe|publisher=Crown Publishers, New York|year=2005|isbn=978-0-7394-5670-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=American Heritage Dictionary| edition=3rd| year=1992|publisher=Houghton Mifflin| location=Boston| title=transistor}}</ref> According to [[Lillian Hoddeson]] and Vicki Daitch, Shockley proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a ''grid'' was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first [[point-contact transistor]].<ref name="todaysengineer.org"/> To acknowledge this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain jointly received the 1956 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/|publisher=nobelprize.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312091604/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1956/|archive-date=March 12, 2007}}</ref><ref name="Guarnieri 1">{{Cite journal|last=Guarnieri|first=M.|year=2017|title=Seventy Years of Getting Transistorized|journal=IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine|volume=11|issue=4|pages=33–37|doi=10.1109/MIE.2017.2757775|s2cid=38161381|hdl=11577/3257397|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Shockley's team initially attempted to build a field-effect transistor (FET) by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the [[surface states]], the [[dangling bond]], and the [[germanium]] and [[copper]] compound materials. Trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind this failure led them instead to invent the bipolar [[point-contact transistor|point-contact]] and [[junction transistor]]s.<ref name="Lee">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Thomas H. |title=The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits |journal=Soldering & Surface Mount Technology |date=2003 |volume=16 |issue=2 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1108/ssmt.2004.21916bae.002 |isbn=9781139643771 |s2cid=108955928 |url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Design-of-CMOS-Radio-Frequency-Integrated-Ellis/c0018d231b4960f7a6c4f581b086212d7f8b0d15?p2df |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021005313/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Design-of-CMOS-Radio-Frequency-Integrated-Ellis/c0018d231b4960f7a6c4f581b086212d7f8b0d15?p2df |archive-date=October 21, 2021 }}</ref><ref name="Puers">{{cite book |last1=Puers |first1=Robert |last2=Baldi |first2=Livio |last3=Voorde |first3=Marcel Van de |last4=Nooten |first4=Sebastiaan E. van |title=Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes |date=2017 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9783527340538 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}}</ref>

In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by physicists [[Herbert Mataré]] and [[Heinrich Welker]] while working at the ''[[Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse]]'', a [[Westinghouse Electric (1886)|Westinghouse]] subsidiary in [[Paris]]. Mataré had previous experience in developing [[Crystal detector|crystal rectifiers]] from [[silicon]] and germanium in the German [[radar]] effort during [[World War II]]. With this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of ''interference'' in 1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, he produced consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented the transistor, the company rushed to get its ''transistron'' into production for amplified use in France's telephone network, filing his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948.<ref>{{Patent|FR|1010427|H. F. Mataré / H. Welker / Westinghouse: "Nouveau sytème crystallin à plusieur électrodes réalisant des relais de effects électroniques" filed on August 13, 1948}}</ref><ref>{{patent|US|2673948|H. F. Mataré / H. Welker / Westinghouse, "Crystal device for controlling electric currents by means of a solid semiconductor" French priority August 13, 1948}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=1948, The European Transistor Invention|publisher=Computer History Museum|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1948-European.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120929202704/http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1948-European.html|archive-date=September 29, 2012}}</ref>

The first [[bipolar junction transistor]]s were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, who applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists [[Gordon Teal]] and [[Morgan Sparks]] successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell announced the discovery of this new ''sandwich'' transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/first-grown-junction-transistors-fabricated/|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404035446/http://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/first-grown-junction-transistors-fabricated/|url-status=live|title=1951: First Grown-Junction Transistors Fabricated &#124; The Silicon Engine &#124; Computer History Museum|archivedate=April 4, 2017|website=www.computerhistory.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/junctw.html |title=A Working Junction Transistor |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 17, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703002246/http://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/junctw.html |archive-date=July 3, 2017 }}</ref>

The first high-frequency transistor was the [[surface-barrier transistor|surface-barrier germanium transistor]] developed by [[Philco]] in 1953, capable of operating at frequencies up to {{nowrap|60 MHz}}.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=Proceedings of the IRE| date=December 1953| author=Bradley, W.E. |title=The Surface-Barrier Transistor: Part I-Principles of the Surface-Barrier Transistor| volume=41| issue=12| pages=1702–1706| doi=10.1109/JRPROC.1953.274351| s2cid=51652314}}</ref> They were made by etching depressions into an n-type germanium base from both sides with jets of [[indium(III) sulfate]] until it was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. [[Indium]] electroplated into the depressions formed the collector and emitter.<ref>''The Wall Street Journal'', December 4, 1953, page 4, Article "Philco Claims Its Transistor Outperforms Others Now In Use"</ref><ref>Electronics magazine, January 1954, Article "Electroplated Transistors Announced"</ref>

AT&T first used transistors in telecommunications equipment in the No.&nbsp;4A Toll Crossbar Switching System in 1953, for selecting trunk circuits from routing information encoded on translator cards.<ref>P. Mallery, ''Transistors and Their Circuits in the 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System'', AIEE Transactions, September 1953, p.388</ref> Its predecessor, the Western Electric No.&nbsp;3A [[phototransistor]], read the mechanical encoding from punched metal cards.

The first prototype pocket [[transistor radio]] was shown by INTERMETALL, a company founded by [[Herbert Mataré]] in 1952, at the [[Internationale Funkausstellung Berlin|''Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf'']] from August 29 to September 6, 1953.<ref>1953 Foreign Commerce Weekly; Volume 49; pp.23</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.welt.de/welt_print/article2721871/Der-deutsche-Erfinder-des-Transistors.html |title=''Der deutsche Erfinder des Transistors – Nachrichten Welt Print – DIE WELT'' |publisher=Welt.de |date=November 23, 2011 |access-date=May 1, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515182422/http://www.welt.de/welt_print/article2721871/Der-deutsche-Erfinder-des-Transistors.html |archive-date=May 15, 2016 |newspaper=Die Welt }}</ref> The first production-model pocket transistor radio was the [[Regency TR-1]], released in October 1954.<ref name="Guarnieri 1" /> Produced as a joint venture between the Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and [[Texas Instruments]] of Dallas, Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio with four transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of six colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and olive green. Other colours shortly followed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regencytr1.com/ |title=Regency TR-1 Transistor Radio History |access-date=April 10, 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041021040145/http://www.regencytr1.com/ |archive-date=October 21, 2004 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ericwrobbel.com/books/regency.htm |title=The Regency TR-1 Family |access-date=April 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427155821/http://www.ericwrobbel.com/books/regency.htm |archive-date=April 27, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.radiomuseum.org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=3886 |title=Regency manufacturer in USA, radio technology from United St |access-date=April 10, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170410214244/http://www.radiomuseum.org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=3886 |archive-date=April 10, 2017 }}</ref>

The first production all-transistor car radio was developed by Chrysler and [[Philco]] corporations and was announced in the April 28, 1955, edition of ''The Wall Street Journal''. Chrysler made the Mopar model 914HR available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which reached dealership showrooms on October 21, 1955.<ref>Wall Street Journal, "Chrysler Promises Car Radio With Transistors Instead of Tubes in '56", April 28, 1955, page 1</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fcanorthamerica.com/company/Heritage/Pages/Chrysler-Heritage-1950.aspx|title=FCA North America - Historical Timeline 1950-1959|website=www.fcanorthamerica.com|access-date=December 5, 2017|archive-date=April 2, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402062327/http://www.fcanorthamerica.com/company/Heritage/Pages/Chrysler-Heritage-1950.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Sony]] TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to the widespread adoption of transistor radios.<ref name="Skrabec">{{cite book | last1  = Skrabec | first1 = Quentin R. Jr. | title = The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business: An Encyclopedia | publisher = ABC-CLIO  | date = 2012 | pages = 195–7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=2kc69qrid9oC&pg=PA195 | isbn = 978-0313398636 }}</ref> Seven million TR-63s were sold worldwide by the mid-1960s.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Snook |first1=Chris J. |title=The 7 Step Formula Sony Used to Get Back On Top After a Lost Decade |url=https://www.inc.com/chris-j-snook/sonys-7-step-formula-for-entrepreneurial-success-business-longevity.html |work=[[Inc. (magazine)|Inc.]] |date=November 29, 2017}}</ref> Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant [[electronic technology]] in the late 1950s.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Kozinsky |first1=Sieva |title=Education and the Innovator's Dilemma |url=https://www.wired.com/insights/2014/01/education-innovators-dilemma/ |magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]] |access-date=October 14, 2019 |date=January 8, 2014}}</ref>

The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954, by [[Morris Tanenbaum]].  The first production commercial silicon transistor was announced by [[Texas Instruments]] in May 1954. This was the work of [[Gordon Teal]], an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs.<ref>{{cite journal| journal=IEEE Spectrum| title=The Lost History of the Transistor|author1-link=Michael Riordan (physicist)| author=Riordan, Michael| date=May 2004| pages=48–49| url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/the-lost-history-of-the-transistor| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150531113132/https://spectrum.ieee.org/biomedical/devices/the-lost-history-of-the-transistor| archive-date=May 31, 2015| df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>Chelikowski, J. (2004) "Introduction: Silicon in all its Forms", p. 1 in ''Silicon: evolution and future of a technology''. P. Siffert and E. F. Krimmel (eds.). Springer, {{ISBN|3-540-40546-1}}.</ref><ref>McFarland, Grant (2006) ''Microprocessor design: a practical guide from design planning to manufacturing''. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 10. {{ISBN|0-07-145951-0}}.</ref>