Editing Trieste (section)

==History==
{{Main|History of Trieste}}
{{For timeline}}
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| quote = {{Noflag|[[Roman Empire]]}}, pre 395<br>
{{Noflag|[[Western Roman Empire]]}}, 395–476<br>
{{Noflag|[[Byzantine Empire]]}}, 476–567<br>
{{Noflag|[[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombards]]}}, 567−788<br>
{{Noflag|[[Francia]]}}, 788−843<br>
{{Noflag|[[Middle Francia]]}}, 843−855<br>
{{Noflag|[[Patriarchate of Aquileia]]}}, 855–952<br>
{{Noflag|[[March of Verona]]}}, 952–1081<br>
{{flagicon image|Friuli Flag.svg}} [[Patria del Friuli]], 1081–1368 <br/>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of Venice (Mid-14th century).svg}} [[Republic of Venice]], 1368–1369 <br/>
{{Noflag|[[Patriarchate of Aquileia]]}}, 1378–1382<br>
{{flagicon image|Banner of the Holy Roman Emperor with haloes (1400-1806).svg}} [[Holy Roman Empire]], 1382−1806<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} [[Austrian Empire]], 1804–1809<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of France (1794–1815, 1830–1974, 2020–present).svg}} [[First French Empire]], 1809–1814<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg}} [[Austrian Empire]], 1814–1867<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Austria-Hungary (1867-1918).svg}} [[Austria-Hungary]], 1867−1922<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Italy (1861-1946) crowned.svg}} [[Kingdom of Italy]], 1922–1943<br>
{{flagicon image|Flag of Germany (1935–1945).svg}} [[Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral|OZAK]], 1943–1945<br>
{{flagicon image|Merchant flag of Germany (1946–1949).svg}} [[Allied Military Government]], 1945–1947<br>
{{flagicon image|Free Territory Trieste Flag.svg}} [[Free Territory of Trieste]], 1947–1954<br>
{{flag|Italy}}, 1954–present
}}

===Ancient history===
[[File:Arcoromano.jpg|thumb|[[Arco di Riccardo]], a Roman triumphal arch constructed from 33–32 BC]]
Since the second millennium BC, the location was an inhabited site. Originally an [[Illyria]]n settlement, the [[Adriatic Veneti|Veneti]] entered the region in the 10th–9th c. BC and seem to have given the town its name, ''Tergeste'', because ''terg*'' is a Venetic word meaning market (q.v. [[Oderzo]], whose ancient name was ''Opitergium''). Later, the town was captured by the [[Carni]], a tribe of the [[Eastern Alps]], before becoming part of the [[Roman Republic]] in 177 BC during the [[Second Istrian War]].<ref>Bernardini, F., Vinci, G., Horvat, J., De Min, A., Forte, E., Furlani, S., Lenaz, D., Pipan, M., Zhao, W., Sgambati, A., Potleca, M., Micheli, R., Fragiacomo, A., & Tuniz, C. (2015). Early Roman military fortifications and the origin of Trieste, Italy. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America'', ''112''(13), E1520–E1529. {{JSTOR|26462435}}</ref>

After being attacked by barbarians from the interior in 52 BC,<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Tergeste|volume=26|page=641|first=Thomas|last=Ashby|author-link=Thomas Ashby (archaeologist)}}</ref> and until 46 BC, it was granted the status of Roman colony under [[Julius Caesar]], who recorded its name as ''Tergeste'' in ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' (51 BC), in which he recounts events of the [[Gallic Wars]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Commentarii_de_bello_Gallico/Liber_VIII#24 | title=Commentarii de bello Gallico/Liber VIII - Wikisource }}</ref>

During the imperial period the border of [[Roman Italy]] moved from the [[Timavo]] River to the Formione (today [[Rižana (river)|Risano]]). Roman Tergeste flourished due to its position on the road from [[Aquileia]], the main Roman city in the area, to [[Istria]], and as a port, some ruins of which are still visible. Emperor [[Augustus]] built a line of walls around the city in 33–32 BC, while [[Trajan]] built a theatre in the 2nd century. At the same time, the citizens of the town were enrolled in the tribe Pupinia. In 27 BC, Trieste was incorporated in ''Regio X'' of Augustan ''Italia''.<ref>Giulipaola Ruaro, ''Strolling Around Trieste'', (Trieste: Edizioni Fachin, 1986), 6</ref>

In the early Christian era Trieste continued to flourish. Between 138 and 161 AD, its territory was enlarged and nearby [[Carni]] and Catali were granted Roman citizenship by the Roman Senate and Emperor Antoninus Pius at the pleading of a leading Tergestine citizen, the ''quaestor urbanus'', Fabius Severus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sul ius adipiscendae c.R. nel decreto tergestino in onore di L. Fabius Severus |url=https://flore.unifi.it/handle/2158/1191036 |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=flore.unifi.it}}</ref>

Already at the time of the Roman Empire there was a fishing village called Vallicula ("small valley") in the [[Barcola]] area. Remains of richly decorated Roman villas, including wellness facilities, piers and extensive gardens suggest that Barcola was already a place for relaxation among the Romans because of its favourable microclimate, as it was located directly on the sea and protected from the [[Bora (wind)|bora]]. At that time, [[Pliny the Elder]] mentioned the vines of the wine Pulcino ("Vinum Pucinum" – probably today's "Prosecco"), which were grown on the slopes.<ref name="Zeno Saracino 2018">Zeno Saracino: "Pompei in miniatura": la storia di "Vallicula" o Barcola. In: Trieste All News. 29 September 2018.</ref>

===Middle Ages===
In 788, Trieste submitted to [[Charlemagne]], who placed it under the authority of the [[Bishop of Trieste|count-bishop]] who in turn was subject to the Duke of [[Duchy of Friuli|Friùli]].{{cn|date=June 2024}}

During the 13th and 14th centuries, Trieste became a maritime trade rival to the [[Republic of Venice]], which briefly occupied it in 1283–87, before coming under the patronage of the Patriarchate of Aquileia.{{cn|date=September 2024}} After it committed a perceived offence against Venice, the Venetian State declared war against Trieste in July 1368 and by November had occupied the city. Venice intended to keep the city and began rebuilding its defences, but was forced to leave in 1372. Due to the Peace of Turin in 1381, Venice renounced its claim to Trieste and the leading citizens of Trieste petitioned [[Leopold III, Duke of Austria|Leopold III]] of [[Habsburg]], Duke of [[Duchy of Austria|Austria]], to annex Trieste to his domains. The agreement of voluntary submission (''dedizione'') was signed at the [[Schloßberg (Graz)|castle of Graz]] on 30 September 1382.<ref name="Thaller">{{cite journal|last1=Thaller|first1=Anja|title=Graz 1382 – Ein Wendepunkt der Triestiner Geschichte?|journal=Historisches Jahrbuch der Stadt Graz|date=2009|volume=38/39|pages=191–221|url=https://www.academia.edu/536492|access-date=6 May 2016|language=de}}</ref>

The city maintained a high degree of autonomy under the Habsburgs, but was increasingly losing ground as a trade hub, both to Venice and to [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]]. In 1463, a number of Istrian communities petitioned Venice [[Siege of Trieste (1463)|to attack Trieste]]. Trieste was saved from utter ruin by the intervention of [[Pope Pius II]] who had previously been bishop of [[Bishopric of Trieste|Trieste]]. However, Venice limited Trieste's territory to {{convert|3|mi|km|spell=in|abbr=off}} outside the city. Trieste would be assaulted again in 1468–1469 by Holy Roman [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick III]]. His sack of the city is remembered as the "Destruction of Trieste."<ref>Giulipaola Ruaro, ''Strolling Around Trieste'', (Trieste: Edizioni Fachin, 1986), 11</ref> He then restored the city walls for the fourth time.<ref name="EB1911"/> Trieste was fortunate to be spared another sack in 1470 by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] who burned the village of [[Prosecco (Trieste)|Prosecco]], only about {{convert|5.3|mi|km|1|abbr=off}} from Trieste, while on their way to attack [[Friuli]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Centro di ricerche storiche Centar za povijesna istraživanja Središče za zgodovinska raziskovanja | website=CRS | url=https://crsrv.org/editoria/atti/atti-xxxi/antonio-miculian-le-incursioni-dei-turchi-e-le-fortezze-veneziane-in-friuli-e-in-istria-nel-quadro-dell-organizzazione-militare-di-terraferma-nel-xvi-secolo | language=it | access-date=12 August 2023}}</ref>
 [[File:Mesto Trst-Valvasor-2.jpg|thumb|left|Trieste in the 17th century, in a contemporary image by the [[Carniola]]n historian [[Johann Weikhard von Valvasor]]]]

===Early modern period===
{{See also|Imperial Free City of Trieste}}
Following an unsuccessful Habsburg invasion of Venice in the prelude to the 1508–16 [[War of the League of Cambrai]], the Venetians occupied Trieste again in 1508, and were allowed to keep the city under the terms of the peace treaty.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guicciardini |first=Francesco |editor-first1=Sidney |editor-last1=Alexander |url=https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691213910 |title=The History of Italy |date=1984-01-01 |publisher=Princeton University Press |doi=10.1515/9780691213910 |isbn=978-0-691-21391-0}}</ref> However, the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]] recovered Trieste a little over one year later, when the conflict resumed. By the 18th century Trieste became an important port and commercial hub for the Austrians.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2010-02-04 |title=The Maritime Commerce of Austria - Marx |url=https://marxengels.public-archive.net/en/ME0988en.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241107213740/http://marxengels.public-archive.net/en/ME0988en.html |archive-date=7 November 2024 |access-date=2025-03-25 |website=marxengels.public-archive.net |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1719, it was granted status as a [[free port]] within the Habsburg Empire by [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles VI]], and remained a free port until 1 July 1791. The reign of his successor, [[Maria Theresa of Austria]], marked the beginning of a very prosperous era for the city. [[Serbs]] settled Trieste largely in the 18th and 19th centuries, and they soon formed an influential and rich community within the city, as a number of Serbian traders came into ownership of many important businesses and built palaces across Trieste.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Kultura Srba u Trstu|last1=Perišić|first1=Miroslav|last2=Reljić|first2=Jelica|publisher=Arhiv Srbije|year=2016|location=Belgrade}}</ref>

===19th century===
[[File:Pividor La Riva Carciotti.jpg|thumb|Palazzo Carciotti in Trieste, {{circa|1850}}]]
In the following decades, Trieste was briefly occupied by troops of the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] on several occasions, in 1797, 1805 and 1809. From 1809 to 1813, Trieste was annexed into the [[Illyrian Provinces]], interrupting its status of free port and losing its autonomy. The municipal autonomy was not restored after the return of the city to the [[Austrian Empire]] in 1813. Following the Napoleonic Wars, Trieste continued to prosper as the [[Free Imperial City]] of Trieste ({{langx|de|[[Reichsunmittelbar]]e Stadt Triest}}), a status that granted economic freedom, but limited its political self-government. The city's role as Austria's main trading port and shipbuilding centre was later emphasised by the foundation of the merchant shipping line [[Österreichischer Lloyd|Austrian Lloyd]] in 1836, whose headquarters stood at the corner of the Piazza Grande and Sanità (today's [[Piazza Unità d'Italia]]). By 1913, Austrian Lloyd had a fleet of 62 ships totalling 236,000 tonnes.<ref>Hubmann, Franz, & Wheatcroft, Andrew (editor), ''The Habsburg Empire, 1840–1916'', London, 1972, {{ISBN|0-7100-7230-9}}</ref> With the introduction of [[constitutionalism]] in the Austrian Empire in 1860, the municipal autonomy of the city was restored, with Trieste becoming capital of the [[Austrian Littoral]] crown land ({{langx|de|Österreichisches Küstenland}}).
[[File:Borsa1854.jpg|thumb|right|The Stock Exchange Square in 1854]]
[[File:Stock market in Triest today.JPG|thumb|Stock market in Trieste today]]
With anti-clericalism on the rise in the rest of the Italian peninsula due to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardina's bellicose policies towards the church and its estates, [[Pope Leo XIII]] at times considered moving his residence to Trieste or [[Salzburg]]. However, [[Emperor Franz Joseph]] rejected the idea.<ref>Josef Schmidlin, ''Papstgeschichte der neueren Zeit,'' München, 1934, p.414</ref> Trieste, along with Rijeka (Fiume), served as an important base for the [[Imperial and Royal Navy|Imperial-Royal Navy]], which in the first decade of the 20th century embarked on a major modernisation programme. With the construction of the [[Austrian Southern Railway]], the first major railway in the Empire, in 1857, Trieste acquired a significant role in the trade of coal. 
 [[File:Triest 1885.jpg|thumb|right|A view of Trieste in 1885]]
Trieste had long been home to Italian irredentist sentiment, as evidenced by the activity at {{ill|Caffè Tommaseo|it|Caffè Tommaseo|de|Caffè Tommaseo}}.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruaro |first=Giuliapaola |title=Triest, 3. |year=2005}}</ref> In 1882 this fervour culminated in an attempted assassination of Emperor Franz Joseph at the hands of Wilhem Oberdank ([[Guglielmo Oberdan]]), while His Majesty was visiting the city. The perpetrator was arrested, tried, found guilty and ultimately sentenced to death. His legacy was regarded as worthy of martyrdom status by fellow irredentists, while monarchical elements regarded his actions as ignominious. The Emperor, who went on to reign for thirty-four more years, never again visited Trieste.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-14 |title=City of Trieste |url=https://mahlerfoundation.org/mahler/locations/italy/trieste/city-of-trieste/ |access-date=2023-05-07 |website=Mahler Foundation |language=en-US}}</ref>

===20th century===
At the beginning of the 20th century, Trieste was a bustling cosmopolitan city frequented by artists and philosophers such as [[James Joyce]], [[Italo Svevo]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Zofka Kveder]], [[Dragotin Kette]], [[Ivan Cankar]], [[Scipio Slataper]], and [[Umberto Saba]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} The city was the major port on the [[Austrian Riviera]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

===World War I, annexation to Italy and Fascist era===
{{See also|Battles of the Isonzo|Julian March}}

Italy, in return for entering [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]], had been promised substantial territorial gains, which included the former [[Austrian Littoral]] and western [[Inner Carniola]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gspi.unipr.it/sites/st26/files/allegatiparagrafo/25-01-2016/treaty_of_london_1.pdf|title=The Treaty of London was signed on April 26, 1915|access-date=December 22, 2023}}</ref> Italy therefore annexed the city of Trieste at the end of the war, in accordance with the provisions of the 1915 [[Treaty of London (1915)|Treaty of London]] and the Italian-Yugoslav 1920 [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Federzoni |first=Luigi |title=IL TRATTATO DI RAPALLO CON UN'APPENDICE DI DOCUMENTI |publisher=[[Zanichelli]] |location=Bologna |pages=295–300 |language=it}}</ref>

In the late 1920s, following Italian fascists burning down of the Slovene cultural centre in July 1920, the Slovene [[militant anti-fascist]] organisation [[TIGR]] carried out several bomb attacks in the city centre. In 1930 and 1941, two trials of Slovene activists were held in Trieste by the fascist Special Tribunal for the Security of the State. During the 1920s and 1930s, several monumental buildings were built in the [[Fascist architecture|Fascist architectural style]], including the [[University of Trieste]] and the almost {{convert|70|m|2|abbr=on}} tall [[Vittoria Light|Victory Lighthouse]] (Faro della Vittoria), which became a city landmark. The economy improved in the late 1930s, and several large infrastructure projects were carried out.<ref>Angelo Ara, Claudio Magris. ''Trieste. Un'identità di frontiera''. p.56</ref>

===World War II and aftermath===
[[File:Titova armija osvobodila je Trst 1948.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|[[Yugoslav Partisans|Yugoslav Army]] entering Trieste (the caption reads: "[[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]]'s Army liberated Trieste")]]
Following the [[Slovene Lands in World War II|trisection]] of Slovenia, starting from the winter of 1941, the first [[Slovene Partisans]] appeared in Trieste province, although the resistance movement did not become active in the city itself until late 1943.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=59–62 |language=en}}</ref>

After the [[Italian armistice]] in September 1943, the city was occupied by [[Wehrmacht|Wehrmacht troops]]. Trieste became nominally part of the newly constituted [[Italian Social Republic]], but it was de facto ruled by Germany, who created the [[Operation Zone of the Adriatic Littoral]] (OZAK) out of former Italian north-eastern regions, with Trieste as the administrative centre. The new administrative entity was headed by [[Friedrich Rainer]], Gauleiter of Carinthia, named supreme commissary of the AK zone. A semblance of indigenous Italian rule was kept in the form of Cesare Pagnini, mayor of Trieste, but every civil official was assigned a representative of the supreme commissar in the form of a Deutsche Berater (German Adviser).<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=72 |language=en}}</ref> Under German occupation, the only [[concentration camp]] with a crematorium on Italian soil was built in a suburb of Trieste, at the [[Risiera di San Sabba]] on 4 April 1944. From 20 October 1943, to the spring of 1944, around 25,000 Jews and partisans were interrogated and tortured in the Risiera. Three to four thousand of them were murdered here by shooting, beating or in gas vans. Most were imprisoned before being transferred to other concentration camps.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.deathcamps.org/sabba/index.html|title=Risiera di San Sabba|website=www.deathcamps.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ehri-project.eu/nazi-occupation-and-extermination-european-jews-methods-sources-and-interpretations-focus-italy-and | title=The Nazi Occupation and the Extermination of the European Jews. Methods, sources and interpretations: A focus on Italy and Lithuania | date=26 September 2017 }}</ref>

The city saw intense Italian and Yugoslav [[partisan (military)|partisan]] activity and suffered from [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] bombings, over 20 air raids in 1944–1945, targeting the oil refineries, port and marshalling yard but causing considerable collateral damage to the city and 651 deaths among the population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://biografiadiunabomba.anvcg.it/trieste-sotto-le-bombe-il-10-giugno-1944/|title=Trieste sotto le bombe il 10 giugno 1944 &#124; Biografia di una bomba &#124; Il blog di Giovanni Lafirenze}}</ref> The worst raid took place on 10 June 1944, when a hundred tons of bombs dropped by 40 [[USAAF]] bombers, targeting the oil refineries, resulted in the destruction of 250 buildings, damage to another 700 and 463 victims.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ilpiccolo.gelocal.it/trieste/cronaca/2014/06/14/news/cosi-il-10-giugno-44-trieste-si-sveglio-sotto-le-bombe-1.9423562|title=Così il 10 giugno '44 Trieste si svegliò sotto le bombe|date=June 14, 2014|website=Il Piccolo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.triesteallnews.it/2019/06/ricordo-del-bombardamento-di-san-giacomo-10-giugno-1944-2019/|title=Ricordo del bombardamento di San Giacomo: 10 giugno 1944-2019 - TRIESTE.news|first=Zeno|last=Saracino|date=June 10, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.comunicarte.info/blog/2016/10-giugno-1944-bombe-su-trieste/|title=Comunicarte Edizioni » 10 giugno 1944: bombe su Trieste}}</ref>

====Occupation by Yugoslav partisans====
[[File:StampTrieste1945Michel18.jpg|thumb|150px|A postage stamp issued by the [[Italian Social Republic]] with a Yugoslav liberation [[overprint]]]]
On 30 April 1945, the Slovenian and Italian [[anti-Fascist]] [[Liberation Front of the Slovene Nation|Osvobodilna fronta]] (OF) and National Liberation Committee ([[Comitato di Liberazione Nazionale]], or CLN) of Edoardo Marzari and [[Antonio Fonda Savio]], made up of approximately 3,500 volunteers, incited a riot against the Nazi occupiers. On 1 May [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] members of the [[Yugoslav Partisans]]' [[8th Dalmatian Corps (Partisans)|8th Dalmatian Corps]] took over most of the city, except for the courts and the castle of San Giusto, where the German garrisons refused to surrender to anyone but the New Zealanders, due to the partisans' reputation for shooting German and Italian prisoners of war.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cadmus.iue.it/dspace/bitstream/1814/2599/1/HEC04-01.pdf|title=The Expulsion of the 'German' Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War|editor-last1=Prauser|editor-first1=Steffen|editor-last2=Rees|editor-first2=Arfon|publisher=[[European University Institute]]|publication-place=Italy|date=December 2004|language=en|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091001022039/http://cadmus.iue.it/dspace/bitstream/1814/2599/1/HEC04-01.pdf|archive-date=October 1, 2009|access-date=December 22, 2023}}</ref> The [[2nd New Zealand Division]] under General [[Bernard Freyberg, 1st Baron Freyberg|Freyberg]] continued to advance towards Trieste along Route 14 around the northern coast of the Adriatic sea and arrived in the city the following day (see official histories ''The Italian Campaign''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/the-italian-campaign/faenza-trieste |title=Faenza, Trieste and home – the Italian campaign &#124; NZHistory, New Zealand history online |publisher=Nzhistory.net.nz |date=2012-12-20 |access-date=2013-03-12}}</ref> and ''Through the Venetian Line'').<ref>{{cite web|author=Kay, Robin |url=https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2-2Ita-c11-4.html |title=IV: Through the Venetian Line |publisher=NZETC |access-date=2013-03-12}}</ref> The German forces surrendered on the evening of 2 May, but were then turned over to the Yugoslav forces.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Picamus |first=Daniela |date=2018 |title=Trieste 1945. Una città ferita |url=https://www.openstarts.units.it/server/api/core/bitstreams/aca70fba-3d0d-4eb7-aba7-1fcf7398a6b6/content |access-date=}}</ref>

The Yugoslavs held full control of the city until 12 June, a period known in Italian historiography as the "forty days of Trieste".<ref name="Bramwell1988">{{cite book|author=Anna Bramwell|title=Refugees in the Age of Total War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykMVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA138|access-date=29 December 2012|year=1988|publisher=Unwin Hyman|isbn=978-0-04-445194-5|page=138}}</ref> During this period, hundreds of local Italians and anti-Communist Slovenes were arrested by the Yugoslav authorities, and many of them were never seen again.<ref name="Petacco2005">{{cite book|first=Arrigo |last=Petacco|title=Tragedy Revealed: The Story of Italians from Istria, Dalmatia, and Venezia Giulia, 1943–1956|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hhD0R8DBr_UC&pg=PA89|access-date=29 December 2012|year=2005|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-3921-7|page=89}}</ref> Some were interned in Yugoslav internment camps (in particular at [[Borovnica, Slovenia]]), while others were [[Foibe massacres|murdered]] on the [[Karst Plateau]].{{sfn|Petacco|2005|p=90}} British [[Field Marshal]] [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Harold Alexander]] condemned the Yugoslav military occupation, stating that "Marshal Tito's apparent intention to establish his claims by force of arms...[is] all too reminiscent of Hitler, Mussolini and Japan. It is to prevent such actions that we have been fighting this war."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Feis|first1=Herbert|title=Between War and Peace|date=2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, NJ|page=282}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cox|first1=Geoffrey|title=The Race for Trieste|date=1977|publisher=W. Kimber|location=London|page=250}}</ref> In this most turbulent of periods, the city saw a thorough reorganisation of the political-administrative system: the Yugoslav Fourth Army, to which many figures of prominence were attached (including [[Edvard Kardelj]], a sign of just how important the Isonzo front was in Yugoslav aims) established a provisional Military Command in the occupied areas. Fully understanding the precarious position it found itself in, the Yugoslav Command undertook great efforts to claim the success for itself, faced with the presence of the [[2nd New Zealand Division]] under General [[Bernard Freyberg]]  in Trieste, which could undermine, as it did, postwar claims of sovereignty and control over the seaport.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=161 |language=en}}</ref> Cox wrote that it was ''the first major confrontation of the Cold War'' and was ''the one corner of Europe'' where ''no demarcation line had been agreed upon in advance by the Allies.''.<ref>{{cite book |last= [[Geoffrey Cox (journalist)|Cox]] |first= Geoffrey |title= The Race for Trieste (was The Road to Trieste)|accessdate=  |edition= 2 |orig-date= 1947 |year= 1977 |publisher= Whitcoulls |location= New Zealand  |isbn= 0-7183-0375-X |oclc= |page= 7, 250 }} </ref> To this effect, a Tanjug Agency communiqué stated: "The seaport of Trieste, Monfalcone and Gorizia could not be occupied by the above mentioned division [the New Zealand Division] as these cities had already been liberated...by the Yugoslav army...It is true that some Allied forces have without our permission entered into the above mentioned cities which might have undesirable consequences unless this misunderstanding is promptly settled by mutual agreement".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hrženjak |first=Juraj |title=SLOVENSKO PRIMORJE IN ISTRA |publisher=Rad |year=1953 |isbn= |pages=509}}</ref>

==== A city in limbo (1945–1947) ====
After an agreement between the Yugoslav leader [[Josip Broz Tito]] and Field Marshal Alexander, the Yugoslav forces withdrew from Trieste, which came under a joint British-U.S. military administration.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=196–198 |language=en}}</ref> The Julian March was divided by the [[Morgan Line]] between Anglo-American and Yugoslav military administration until September 1947 when the [[Paris Peace Treaty]] established the [[Free Territory of Trieste]]. The effective turning point for Trieste's fortunes had already been established, though: President Truman's stipulations, later named the Truman Doctrine, in all but name had sealed the status quo, formalised only in the above-mentioned treaty, one that proved to be a careful balancing act between Yugoslav demands, Italian claims and international aims toward the Adriatic gulf and Eastern Europe in general. Questions arose on the structure of government as soon and even earlier than the signing of the treaty, with neither Italy nor Yugoslavia willing to recognise a joint governor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=279–280 |language=en}}</ref> Initially, the newly established Allied Military Government (AMG) found it difficult to exercise its authority over the newly administered territories (the Italian majority provinces of Trieste, Gorizia and Pola), because of a rooted communist presence, especially in the countryside. This state of affairs did not change until a formal peace treaty with Italy had been signed, granting the AMG the full powers to administer justice and re-establish law and order in those areas under its administration. Replacing the People's Militia, the AMG recruited a civilian police force from the indigenous population along the Anglo-Saxon police model. This exercise of jurisdiction was thus articulated: pursuant to Proclamation No. 1, three tiers of tribunals were established: the Summary Military Courts, with jurisdiction over petty crime, the Superior Military Courts, which could impose punishments not exceeding 10 years imprisonment, and the General Military Court, which could impose the death penalty. Civil courts, as modelled on the Kingdom of Italy's code, were, pursuant to General Order No. 6, re-established July 12, 1945, but the Slovene minority was given the right to be heard, and for proceedings to be, in their own language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novak |first=Bogdan |title=Trieste, 1941-1954 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=1970 |location=United States of America |pages=214 |language=en}}</ref>

===Zone A of the Free Territory of Trieste (1947–54)===
{{Main| Free Territory of Trieste}}
[[File:Free Territory of Trieste Map.svg|thumb|upright|left|Trieste and Zone A/B]]
In 1947, Trieste was declared an independent [[city state]] under the protection of the [[United Nations]] as the [[Free Territory of Trieste]]. The territory was divided into two zones, A and B, along the [[Morgan Line]] established in 1945.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/89801/DOC_0000258341.pdf|title=The Current Situation in the Free Territory of Trieste|publisher=CIA|year=1948|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=17 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130717211341/http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/89801/DOC_0000258341.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

From 1947 to 1954, Zone A was occupied and governed by the [[Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories|Allied Military Government]], composed of the American [[Trieste United States Troops]] (TRUST), commanded by Major General [[Bryant Moore|Bryant E. Moore]], the commanding general of the American [[88th Infantry Division (United States)|88th Infantry Division]], and the "British Element Trieste Forces" (BETFOR), commanded by Sir [[Terence Airey]], who were the joint forces commander and also the military governors.<ref>{{cite web |title=British Element Trieste Forces – Order of Battle |url=http://www.milhist.net/betfor/ordbat.html |access-date=21 June 2014}}</ref>
[[File:Trieste 1954.jpg|thumb|Cheering crowd for the return of Trieste to Italy on November 4, 1954]]
Zone A covered almost the same area of the current Italian Province of Trieste, except for four small villages south of [[Muggia]] (see below), which were given to Yugoslavia after the dissolution of the Free Territory in 1954. Occupied Zone B, which was under the administration of [[Miloš Stamatović]], then a colonel in the [[Yugoslav People's Army]], was composed of the north-westernmost portion of the Istrian peninsula, between the [[Mirna River (Croatia)|Mirna River]] and the cape [[Debeli Rtič]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=TIMES |first=Special to THE NEW YORK |date=1952-05-16 |title=YUGOSLAVS TIGHTEN TRIESTE ZONE GRIP; Retaliate Against U. S.-British Concessions to Italians -- Travel Facilitated |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1952/05/16/archives/yugoslavs-tighten-trieste-zone-grip-retaliate-against-u-sbritish.html |access-date=2025-03-25 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In 1954, in accordance with the Memorandum of London, the vast majority of Zone A—including the city of Trieste—joined Italy, whereas Zone B and four villages from Zone A ([[Plavje]], [[Spodnje Škofije]], [[Hrvatini]], and [[Elerji]]) became part of Yugoslavia, divided between [[Socialist Republic of Slovenia|Slovenia]] and [[Socialist Republic of Croatia|Croatia]]. The final border line with [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and the status of the ethnic minorities in the areas was settled bilaterally in 1975 with the [[Treaty of Osimo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.inps.it/docallegatiNP/Mig/Allegati/459Ex_Jugoslavia_Trattato_Osimo.pdf|title=Trattato tra la Repubblica Italiana e la Repubblica Socialista|website=inps.it|language=it|access-date=7 June 2023}}</ref> This line now constitutes the border between Italy and Slovenia.<ref>{{Citation |title=The Italian Occupation in Slovenia and Dalmatia: 1941–43 |date=2016-10-04 |work=Italy and Its Eastern Border, 1866-2016 |pages=166–191 |url=https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315762586-13 |access-date=2025-03-25 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315762586-13 |isbn=978-1-315-76258-6|url-access=subscription }}</ref>