Editing Typography (section)

== History ==
{{Main|History of Western typography|History of typography in East Asia|Movable type}}
[[File:Chinese movable type 1313-ce.png|thumb|A revolving type case for [[Wood type|wooden type]] in China, an illustration shown in a book published in 1313 by [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]]]]
[[File:JikjiType.gif|thumb|Recreated Korean movable type from 1377 as used for the [[Jikji]]]]

Although typically applied to printed, published, broadcast, and reproduced materials in contemporary times, all words, letters, symbols, and numbers written alongside the earliest naturalistic drawings by humans may be called typography. The word, ''typography'', is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words τύπος ''typos'' 'form' or "impression" and γράφειν ''graphein'' 'to write', traces its origins to the first [[Punch (numismatics)|punches]] and [[Die (manufacturing)|dies]] used to make [[Seal (emblem)|seals]] and [[currency]] in [[ancient times]], which ties the concept to printing. The uneven spacing of the impressions on brick stamps found in the [[Mesopotamian]] cities of [[Uruk]] and [[Larsa]], dating from the [[second millennium B.C.]], may be evidence of type, wherein the reuse of identical characters was applied to create cuneiform text.<ref name="brickstamps">{{cite book|last1=Sass|first1=Benjamin|last2=Marzahn|first2=Joachim |title=Aramaic and Figural Stamp Impressions on Bricks of the Sixth Century B.C. from Babylon|year=2010|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-06184-1|pages=11, 20, 160|quote="the latter has cuneiform signs that look as if made with a movable type, and impressions from Assur display the same phenomenon}}</ref> Babylonian [[cylinder seal]]s were used to create an impression on a surface by rolling the seal on wet clay.<ref name="Clair" /> Typography was also implemented in the [[Phaistos Disc]], an enigmatic [[Minoan]] printed item from [[Crete]], which dates to between 1850 and 1600 B.C.<ref name="Brekle1997">{{Citation | last = Brekle | first = Herbert E | author-link = Herbert E. Brekle | title = Das typographische Prinzip. Versuch einer Begriffsklärung | url = http://www.typeforum.de/news_332.htm | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110716022750/http://www.typeforum.de/news_332.htm | archive-date = 16 July 2011 | journal = [[Gutenberg-Jahrbuch]] | volume = 72 | pages = 58–63 | year = 1997 | language = de}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | title = The Phaistos disk| first= Benjamin| last= Schwartz| journal= [[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]] | volume = 18|issue= 2|year= 1959|pages= 105–12 |doi= 10.1086/371517| s2cid= 162272726}}</ref><ref name = Diamond1997>{{Citation | title = Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Society |first=Jared| last = Diamond | author-link= Jared Diamond | chapter = 13: Necessity's Mother: The evolution of technology |year=1997 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company | isbn = 978-0-393-03891-0}}</ref> It has been proposed that [[Roman lead pipe inscription]]s were created with movable type printing,<ref>{{Citation | last = Lanciani | first = R | title = Topografia di Roma antica. I commentarii di Frontino intorno le acque e gli acquedotti. Silloge epigrafica aquaria |trans-title=Topography of ancient Rome. The commentaries of Frontini around the waters and the aqueducts | journal = Memorie della Reale Accademia dei Lincei | series = III | volume = IV | orig-year = Classe di Scienze Morali, Rom 1881 | publisher = Quasar | year = 1975 | pages = 215–616 | language = it}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Pace | first = Pietrantonio | title = Gli acquedotti di Roma e il Aquaeductu di Frontino |trans-title=The aqueducts of Rome and the aqueduct of Frontino | edition = 2nd | place = Rome | language = it | publisher = Art Studio S. Eligio | year = 1986}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Hodge | first = A. Trevor | title = Roman Aqueducts & Water Supply | place = London | publisher = Duckworth | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-7156-2194-3}}</ref> but German typographer [[Herbert Brekle]] recently dismissed this view.<ref>{{Citation | last = Brekle | first = Herbert E | author-link = Herbert E. Brekle | editor1-last = Hanneforth | editor1-first = Thomas | editor2-last = Fanselow | editor2-first = Gisbert | contribution = Herstellungstechniken von Inschriften auf römischen Wasserleitungsrohren aus Blei | title = Language and Logos. Studies in Theoretical and Computational Linguistics | publisher = Akademie Verlag | place = Berlin | series = Studia grammatica | volume = 72 | isbn = 978-3-05-004931-1 | year = 2010 | pages = 419–37 }}</ref>

The essential criterion of [[Type–token distinction|type identity]] was met by [[medieval]] print artifacts such as the [[Latin]] [[Pruefening Abbey inscription]] of 1119 that was created by the same technique as the Phaistos Disc.<ref name="Brekle1997" /><ref>{{Citation | last = Brekle | first = Herbert E | author-link = Herbert E. Brekle | title = Die Prüfeninger Weihinschrift von 1119. Eine paläographisch-typographische Untersuchung | type = brief summary | url = http://www.typeforum.de/news_308.htm | publisher = Scriptorium Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft | place = Regensburg | year = 2005 | isbn = 978-3-937527-06-2 | language = de | access-date = 22 April 2010 | archive-date = 1 October 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111001051756/http://www.typeforum.de/news_308.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="Lehmann-Haupt1940">{{Citation | last = Lehmann-Haupt | first = Hellmut | title = Englische Holzstempelalphabete des XIII. Jahrhunderts | journal = [[Gutenberg-Jahrbuch]] | pages = 93–97 | year = 1940 | language = de}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Hupp | first = Otto | author-link = Otto Hupp | contribution = Die Prüfeninger Weiheinschrift von 1119 | title = Studien aus Kunst und Geschichte, Festschrift für Friedrich Schneider | year = 1906 | publisher = Herder | location = Freiburg i. Br. | language = de}}</ref> The silver [[Altarpiece of Pellegrino II|altarpiece of patriarch Pellegrinus II]] (1195–1204) in the cathedral of [[Cividale]] was printed with individual letter punches.<ref name="Lipinsky1986">{{Citation | last = Lipinsky | first = Angelo | title = La pala argentea del Patriarca Pellegrino nella Collegiata di Cividale e le sue iscrizioni con caratteri mobili | journal = Ateneo Veneto | volume = 24 | pages = 75–80 | year = 1986 | language = it}}</ref><ref name="Koch1994">{{Citation | last = Koch | first = Walter | title = Literaturbericht zur mittelalterlichen und neuzeitlichen Epigraphik (1985–1991) | series = [[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]] |publisher= Hilfsmittel | volume = 14 | year = 1994 | location = München | isbn = 978-3-88612-114-4 | page = 213 | language = de}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Brekle | first = Herbert E | year = 2011 | language = de | place = [[Germany|DE]] | url = http://epub.uni-regensburg.de/20788/6/Die_typographische_Herstellungstechnik_der_Inschriften_auf_dem_silbernen_Altaraufsatz_im_Dom_von_Cividale.pdf | title = Die typographische Herstellungstechnik der Inschriften auf dem silbernen Altaraufsatz im Dom von Cividale | publisher = Regensburg | author-mask = 3}}</ref> Apparently, the same printing technique may be found in tenth to twelfth century [[Byzantine]] [[reliquaries]].<ref name="Lipinsky1986"/><ref name="Koch1994"/> Other early examples include [[individual letter tile]]s where the words are formed by assembling single letter tiles in the desired order, which were reasonably widespread in medieval Northern Europe.<ref name="Brekle1997" /><ref name="Lehmann-Haupt1940" />

Typography with [[movable type]] was invented during the eleventh-century [[Song dynasty]] in China by [[Bi Sheng]] (990–1051).<ref name="needham">{{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |title=The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=14|isbn=978-0-521-32995-8|quote=Bi Sheng... who first devised, about 1045, the art of printing with movable type}}</ref> His movable type system was manufactured from ceramic materials, and clay type printing continued to be practiced in China until the [[Qing dynasty]].

[[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] was one of the pioneers of [[Wood type|wooden movable type]]. Although the wooden type was more durable under the mechanical rigors of handling, repeated printing wore the character faces down and the types could be replaced only by carving new pieces.<ref name=ts>{{cite book |last=Tsien |first=Tsuen-Hsuin |author-link=Tsien Tsuen-hsuin |title=Paper and Printing |volume=5 part 1 |series=Needham, Joseph ''Science and Civilization in China:'' |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1985|isbn= 978-0-521-08690-5|pages=201–217}}</ref>

Metal movable type was first invented in Korea during the [[Goryeo Dynasty]], approximately 1230. [[Hua Sui]] introduced bronze type printing to China in 1490 AD. The diffusion of both movable-type systems was limited and the technology did not spread beyond East and Central Asia, however.{{Sfn | Ch'on | 1993 | p = 19}}

[[File:Pressing-16th century.jpg|thumb|A sixteenth century workshop in Germany showing a printing press and many of the activities involved in the process of printing]]

Modern lead-based movable type, along with the mechanical [[printing press]], is most often attributed to the goldsmith [[Johannes Gutenberg]] in 1439.<ref>{{Citation | last = McLuhan | first = Marshall | author-link = Marshall McLuhan | title = The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man | publisher = University of Toronto Press | edition = 1st | year = 1962 | isbn = 978-0-8020-6041-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Eisenstein | first = Elizabeth L | author-link = Elizabeth L. Eisenstein | title = The Printing Press as an Agent of Change | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1980 | isbn = 978-0-521-29955-8 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/printingpressasa0000eise }}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1 = Febvre | first1 = Lucien | author-link1 = Lucien Febvre | last2 = Martin | first2 = Henri-Jean | author-link2 = Henri-Jean Martin | title = The Coming of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800 | publisher = Verso | place = London | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-1-85984-108-2}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last = Man | first = John | author-link = John Man (author) | title = The Gutenberg Revolution: The Story of a Genius and an Invention that Changed the World | publisher = Headline Review | place = London | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-7472-4504-9 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/gutenbergrevolut0000manj }}</ref> His type pieces, made from a [[lead]]-based [[alloy]], suited printing purposes so well that the alloy is still used today.<ref name="EB: Printing">{{Citation | title = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 2006 | contribution = Printing| title-link = Encyclopædia Britannica }}</ref> Gutenberg developed specialized techniques for casting and combining cheap copies of [[Punchcutting|letter punches]] in the vast quantities required to print multiple copies of texts.<ref>Dowding, Geoffrey. ''An Introduction to the History of Printing Types''. London: Oak Knoll Press, 1998. p. 3.</ref> This technical breakthrough was instrumental in starting the [[Printing Revolution]] and the first book printed with lead-based movable type was the [[Gutenberg Bible]].

Rapidly advancing technology revolutionized typography in the latter twentieth century. During the 1960s some camera-ready typesetting could be produced in any office or workshop with stand-alone machines such as those introduced by [[IBM]] (see: [[IBM Selectric typewriter]]). During the same period [[Letraset]] introduced [[dry transfer]] technology that allowed designers to transfer types instantly.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lipsum.com |title=Lorem Ipsum - All the facts - Lipsum generator |publisher=Lipsum.com |date= |accessdate=2022-03-02}}</ref> The famous Lorem Ipsum gained popularity due to its usage in [[Letraset]]. During the mid-1980s [[personal computer]]s allowed type designers to create typefaces digitally using commercial graphic design software such as [[Fontographer]]. Digital technology also enabled designers to create more experimental typefaces as well as the practical typefaces of traditional typography. Designs for typefaces could be created faster with the new technology, and for more specific functions.<ref name="Clair">{{cite book|last1=Clair|first1=Kate|last2=Busic-Snyder|first2=Cynthia |title=A Typographic Workbook: A Primer to History, Techniques, and Artistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lf0iDYCr6w0C|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-39988-0|pages=4, 123}}</ref> The cost for developing typefaces was drastically lowered, becoming widely available to the masses. The change has been called the "democratization of type" and has given new designers more opportunities to enter the field.<ref name=Rothenberg1990>{{cite news|last=Rothenberg|first=Randall|title=Computers Change the Face of Type|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/23/business/computers-change-the-face-of-type.html|date=23 July 1990|newspaper=New York Times}}</ref>

=== Evolution ===
The design of typefaces has developed alongside the development of [[typesetting]] systems.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Rob |last1=Carter |first2=Ben |last2=Day |first3=Philip B. |last3=Meggs |author3-link = Philip B. Meggs |title=Typographic Design: Form and Communication |year=2012 |page=125 |quote=It is the earliest mechanization of a handicraft: the handlettering of books. Typographic design has been closely bound to the evolution of technology, for the capabilities and limitations of typesetting systems have posed constraints upon the design process.}}</ref> Although typography has evolved significantly from its origins, it is a largely conservative art that tends to cleave closely to tradition.<ref name="The Crystal Reference Encyclopedia">{{cite web|title=Typography|url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/typography?searchId=9d3b7944-6200-11e4-9214-12c1d36507ee|website=Credo Reference/The Crystal Reference Encyclopedia|publisher=Credo Reference|access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref> This is because [[legibility]] is paramount, and so the typefaces that are the most readable usually are retained. In addition, the evolution of typography is inextricably intertwined with [[lettering]] by hand and related art forms, especially formal styles, which thrived for centuries preceding typography,<ref name="The Crystal Reference Encyclopedia" /> and so the evolution of typography must be discussed with reference to this relationship.

In the nascent stages of European [[printing]], the typeface ([[blackletter]], or Gothic) was designed in imitation of the popular hand-lettering styles of [[scribes]].<ref name="The Columbia Encyclopedia">{{cite web|title=Type|url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/columency/type/0|website=Credo Reference/The Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher=Credo Reference|access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref> Initially, this typeface was difficult to read, because each letter was set in place individually and made to fit tightly into the allocated space.<ref name=Infoamerica>{{cite web|title=The Evolution of Typography|url=http://www.infoamerica.org/museo/pdf/evolucion.pdf|website=Infoamerica|access-date=2 November 2014}}</ref> The art of manuscript writing, the origin of which was during Hellenistic and Roman bookmaking, reached its zenith in the illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages. Metal typefaces notably altered the style, making it "crisp and uncompromising", and also brought about "new standards of composition".<ref name="The Crystal Reference Encyclopedia" />
During the [[Renaissance]] period in France, [[Claude Garamond]] was partially responsible for the adoption of Roman typeface that eventually supplanted the more commonly used Gothic (blackletter).<ref name="Haley">{{cite book|last1=Haley|first1=Allan|title=Typography, Referenced|date=2012|publisher=Rockport Publishers|location=Beverly, MA|isbn=978-1-59253-702-0}}</ref>{{rp|8}} Roman typeface also was based on hand-lettering styles.<ref name="Roman type">[[Roman type]]</ref>

The development of Roman typeface can be traced back to Greek lapidary letters. Greek lapidary letters were carved into stone and "one of the first formal uses of Western [[letterforms]]"; after that, Roman lapidary letterforms evolved into the monumental capitals, which laid the foundation for Western typographical design, especially [[serif]] typefaces.<ref name="Haley" />{{rp|10}} There are two styles of Roman typefaces: the old style, and the modern. The former is characterized by its similarly weighted lines, while the latter is distinguished by its contrast of light and heavy lines.<ref name="The Columbia Encyclopedia" /> Often, these styles are combined.

In relation to the international graphics of the 1920s - 1930s, the term "International Typographic Style" is used.<ref>Meggs P. A History of Graphic Design. N. Y.: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.</ref> In the 1950s - 1960s, such a phenomenon as "Swiss style" was formed in typography.<ref> Hollis R. Swiss Graphic Design: The Origins and Growth of an International Style, 1920-1965. New Haven: Yale University Press: 2001.</ref><ref>Vasileva E. (2021) The Swiss Style: It’s Prototypes, Origins and the Regulation Problem // Terra Artis. Arts and Design, 3, 84–101.</ref>

By the twentieth century, computers turned typeface design into a rather simplified process. This has allowed the number of typefaces and styles to proliferate exponentially, as there now are thousands available.<ref name="The Columbia Encyclopedia" /> Confusion between [[typeface]] and [[font]] (the various styles of a single typeface) occurred in 1984 when [[Steve Jobs]] mislabeled typefaces as fonts for Apple computers and his error has been perpetuated throughout the computer industry, leading to common misuse by the public of the term ''font'' when ''typeface'' is the proper term.{{Citation needed|date=December 2020}}

=== Experimental typeface uses ===
"Experimental typography" is defined as the unconventional and more artistic approach to typeface selection. [[Francis Picabia]] was a [[Dada]] pioneer of this practice in the early twentieth century. [[David Carson (graphic designer)|David Carson]] is often associated with this movement, particularly for his work in ''[[Ray Gun (magazine)|Ray Gun]]'' magazine in the 1990s. His work caused an uproar in the design community due to his abandonment of standard practices in typeface selection, layout, and design. Experimental typography is said to place emphasis on expressing emotion, rather than having a concern for legibility while communicating ideas, hence considered bordering on being art.

=== Techniques ===
There are many facets to the expressive use of typography, and with those come many different techniques to help with visual aid and the graphic design. Spacing and kerning, size-specific spacing, x-height and vertical proportions, character variation, width, weight, and contrast,<ref>{{cite web|title = On Legibility – In Typography And Type Design {{!}} Learn – Scannerlicker!|url = http://learn.scannerlicker.net/2014/11/14/on-legibility-in-typography-and-type-design/|website = learn.scannerlicker.net|access-date = 5 November 2015}}</ref> are several techniques that are necessary to be taken into consideration when thinking about the appropriateness of specific typefaces or creating them. When placing two or more differing and/or contrasting fonts together, these techniques come into play for organizational strategies and demanding attractive qualities. For example, if the bulk of a title has a more unfamiliar or unusual font, simpler sans-serif fonts will help complement the title while attracting more attention to the piece as a whole.<ref>{{cite web|title = Expressive Web Typography: Useful Examples and Techniques |url = http://www.smashingmagazine.com/2010/09/expressive-web-typography-useful-examples-and-techniques/#more-60406|website = Smashing Magazine|access-date = 5 November 2015|date = 13 September 2010}}</ref>