Editing Ultramontanism (section)

==First Vatican Council==
{{Main|First Vatican Council}}

According to Catholic academic [[Jeffrey P. von Arx]],

{{blockquote|The threat to the Catholic Church and the papacy through the 19th century was real, and the church’s reaction to that threat was understandable. Indeed, the church remained threatened on all sides. On the left, secular liberals sought to reduce or eliminate the role of the church in public life and civil society (by suppressing church schools, for example, and expelling religious congregations). The more radical heirs of the revolution and the socialists and communists into whom they evolved remained committed to the church’s utter destruction. But the threat was also from the nationalist right. Otto von Bismarck’s [[Kulturkampf]] was aimed directly at the Catholic Church, imposing state supervision of Catholic schools and seminaries and government appointment of bishops with no reference to Rome.<ref name=von>Von Arx, Jeffrey (June 10, 2015). [https://www.americamagazine.org/issue/post-traumatic-church "How did Vatican I change the church?"] ''America Magazine''.</ref>}}

The response was a condemnation of [[Gallicanism]] as heretical:

{{blockquote|[W]e condemn and reject the opinions of those who hold that this communication of the supreme head with pastors and flocks may be lawfully obstructed; or that it should be dependent on the civil power, which leads them to maintain that what is determined by the apostolic see or by its authority concerning the government of the church, has no force or effect unless it is confirmed by the agreement of the civil authority.<ref name=Oneill>{{Cite journal |url=http://churchlife.nd.edu/2018/10/12/a-defense-of-ultramontanism-contra-gallicanism/ |last=O'Neill |first=Taylor Patrick |title=A Defense of Ultramontanism Contra Gallicanism |journal=Church Life Journal |date=October 12, 2018 |publisher=University of Notre Dame |access-date=January 7, 2019 |archive-date=January 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117011820/http://churchlife.nd.edu/2018/10/12/a-defense-of-ultramontanism-contra-gallicanism/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}

The council also asserted [[papal primacy]]. In July 1870, it issued the [[Dogmatic constitution]] {{lang|la|[[Pastor aeternus]]}}, defining four doctrines of the Catholic faith: the [[Primacy of Peter|apostolic primacy conferred on Peter]], the perpetuity of this primacy in the Roman pontiffs, the meaning and power of the papal primacy, and [[Papal infallibility]].

{{blockquote|[W]e teach and declare that, by divine ordinance, the Roman Church possesses a pre-eminence of ordinary power over every other Church, and that this jurisdictional power of the Roman Pontiff is both episcopal and immediate. Both clergy and faithful, of whatever rite and dignity, both singly and collectively, are bound to submit to this power by the duty of hierarchical subordination and true obedience, and this not only in matters concerning faith and morals, but also in those which regard the discipline and government of the Church throughout the world.<ref>{{lang|la|italic=no|"Pastor aeternus"}}, Const. de Ecclesia Christi, July 18, 1870</ref>}}

Von Arx compares this to "the great empires and national states of the 19th century, which used new means of communication and transportation to consolidate power, enforce unity and build bureaucracies".<ref name=von/> "Cardinal [[Henry Edward Manning]] in Great Britain thought unity and discipline within the church were of the utmost importance in protecting the church and advancing its interests in a liberal, democratic state, and so he was one of the strongest advocates of the ultramontane position."<ref name=von/> The English bishops at the council were characterized by their ultramontanism and described as "being [[more Catholic than the Pope]] himself".<ref>{{cite book | last = Nobili-Vitelleschi | first = Francesco | title = The Vatican Council; Eight Months at Rome, During the Vatican Council | publisher = John Murray | date = 1876 | location = London | pages = 28}}</ref>

<gallery widths="145" heights="200">
File:G.P.A.Healy, Portrait of Pope Pius IX (1871).jpg|Pope Pius IX called the First Vatican Council
File:Kardinal Edward Manning JS.jpg|Cardinal Henry Edward Manning
</gallery>

===Reaction===
{{Integralism}}
Other Christian groups outside the Catholic Church declared this as the triumph of what they termed "the heresy of ultramontanism". It was specifically decried in the "Declaration of the Catholic Congress at Munich", in the Theses of Bonn, and in the [[Declaration of Utrecht]], which became the foundational documents of [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholics ({{lang|de|cat=no|Altkatholische}})]] who split with Rome over the declaration on infallibility and supremacy, joining the [[Old Catholic Church of the Netherlands|Old Episcopal Order Catholic See of Utrecht]], which had been independent from Rome since 1723.<ref name=Oneill/>

As with previous pronouncements by the pope, liberals across Europe were outraged by the doctrine of infallibility and many countries reacted with laws to counter the influence of the church. The term "ultramontanism" was revived during the [[French Third Republic]] (1870–1940) as a pejorative way to describe policies that went against {{lang|fr|[[laïcité]]}}, a concept rooted in the French Revolution. The French philosopher [[Jacques Maritain]] noted the distinction between the models found in France and the separation of church and state in the United States in the mid-twentieth century. He considered the US model of that time to be more amicable because it had both "sharp distinction and actual cooperation" between church and state, what he called "an historical treasure" and admonished the United States, "Please to God that you keep it carefully, and do not let your concept of separation veer round to the European one."<ref name="Christ And Culture Revisited">{{citation|access-date=2012-02-10|last=Carson|first= D. A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pIwE74bxvpAC|title= Christ And Culture Revisited|page= 189|publisher= Wm. B. Eerdmans |year= 2008|isbn=9780802831743 }}</ref>

After [[Italian Unification]] and the abrupt (and unofficial) end of the [[First Vatican Council]] in 1870 because of the outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the ultramontanist movement and the opposing conciliarism became obsolete to a large extent. However, some very extreme tendencies of a minority of adherents to ultramontanism – especially those attributing to the Roman pontiff, even in his private opinions, absolute infallibility even in matters beyond faith and morals, and [[impeccability]] – survived and were eagerly used by opponents of the Catholic Church and papacy before the [[Second Vatican Council]] (1962–1965) for use in their propaganda. These extreme tendencies, however, were never supported by the First Vatican Council's dogma of 1870 of papal infallibility and primacy, but were rather inspired by erroneous private opinions of some Catholic laymen who tend to identify themselves completely with the Holy See.

At the [[Second Vatican Council]]'s Dogmatic Constitution on the Church {{lang|la|[[Lumen gentium]]}}, the Catholic Church's teaching on the authority of the pope, bishops and councils was further elaborated. The post-conciliar position of the [[Apostolic See]] did not deny any of the previous doctrines of [[papal infallibility]] or [[papal primacy]]; rather, it shifted emphasis from structural and organizational authority to doctrinal teaching authority (also known as the {{lang|la|[[magisterium]]}}). Papal {{lang|la|magisterium}}, i.e. papal teaching authority, was defined in {{lang|la|Lumen gentium}} No.&nbsp;25 and later codified in the 1983 revision of [[Canon Law]].