Editing Unreliable narrator (section)

==Definitions and theoretical approaches==
[[Wayne C. Booth]] was among the first critics to formulate a reader-centered approach to unreliable narration and to distinguish between a reliable and unreliable narrator on the grounds of whether the narrator's speech violates or conforms with general norms and values. He writes, "I have called a narrator ''reliable'' when he speaks for or acts in accordance with the norms of the work (which is to say the [[implied author]]'s norms), ''unreliable'' when he does not."<ref name=Booth/> Peter J. Rabinowitz criticized Booth's definition for relying too much on facts external to the narrative, such as norms and ethics, which must necessarily be tainted by personal opinion. He consequently modified the approach to unreliable narration.

{{Blockquote| There are unreliable narrators (c.f. Booth). An unreliable narrator however, is not simply a narrator who 'does not tell the truth' – what fictional narrator ever tells the literal truth? Rather an unreliable narrator is one who tells lies, conceals information, misjudges with respect to the narrative audience – that is, one whose statements are untrue not by the standards of the real world or of the authorial audience but by the standards of his own narrative audience. ... In other words, all fictional narrators are false in that they are imitations. But some are imitations who tell the truth, some of people who lie.<ref name="Rabinowitz, Peter J. 1977">Rabinowitz, Peter J.: ''Truth in Fiction: A Reexamination of Audiences.'' In: ''Critical Inquiry.'' Nr. 1, 1977, S. 121–141.</ref>}}

Rabinowitz's main focus is the status of fictional discourse in opposition to factuality. He debates the issues of truth in fiction, bringing forward four types of audience who serve as receptors of any given literary work:

# "Actual audience" (= the flesh-and-blood people who read the book)
# "Authorial audience" (= hypothetical audience to whom the author addresses his text)
# "Narrative audience" (= imitation audience which also possesses particular knowledge)
# "Ideal narrative audience" (= uncritical audience who accepts what the narrator is saying)

Rabinowitz suggests that "In the proper reading of a novel, then, events which are portrayed must be treated as both 'true' and 'untrue' at the same time. Although there are many ways to understand this duality, I propose to analyze the four audiences which it generates."<ref name="Rabinowitz, Peter J. 1977">Rabinowitz, Peter J.: ''Truth in Fiction: A Reexamination of Audiences.'' In: ''Critical Inquiry.'' Nr. 1, 1977, S. 121–141.</ref> Similarly, Tamar Yacobi has proposed a model of five criteria ('integrating mechanisms') which determine if a narrator is unreliable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/index.php/Unreliability |title=Living Handbook of Narratology |access-date=2016-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116110219/http://hup.sub.uni-hamburg.de/lhn/index.php/Unreliability |archive-date=16 January 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Instead of relying on the device of the implied author and a text-centered analysis of unreliable narration, Ansgar Nünning gives evidence that narrative unreliability can be reconceptualized in the context of frame theory and of readers' cognitive strategies.

{{Blockquote|... to determine a narrator's unreliability one need not rely merely on intuitive judgments. It is neither the reader's intuitions nor the implied author's norms and values that provide the clue to a narrator's unreliability, but a broad range of definable signals. These include both textual data and the reader's preexisting conceptual knowledge of the world. In sum whether a narrator is called unreliable or not does not depend on the distance between the norms and values of the narrator and those of the implied author but between the distance that separates the narrator's view of the world from the reader's world-model and standards of normality.<ref>Nünning, Ansgar: ''But why will you say that I am mad?: On the Theory, History, and Signals of Unreliable Narration in British Fiction.'' In: ''Arbeiten zu Anglistik und Amerikanistik.'' Nr. 22, 1997, S. 83–105.</ref>}}

Unreliable narration in this view becomes purely a reader's strategy of making sense of a text, i.e., of reconciling discrepancies in the narrator's account (c.f. [[#Signals of unreliable narration|signals of unreliable narration]]). Nünning thus effectively eliminates the reliance on value judgments and moral codes which are always tainted by personal outlook and taste. Greta Olson recently debated both Nünning's and Booth's models, revealing discrepancies in their respective views.

{{Blockquote| Booth's text-immanent model of narrator unreliability has been criticized by Ansgar Nünning for disregarding the reader's role in the perception of reliability and for relying on the insufficiently defined concept of the implied author. Nünning updates Booth's work with a cognitive theory of unreliability that rests on the reader's values and her sense that a discrepancy exists between the narrator's statements and perceptions and other information given by the text.}} 
and offers "an update of Booth's model by making his implicit differentiation between fallible and untrustworthy narrators explicit". Olson then argues "that these two types of narrators elicit different responses in readers and are best described using scales for fallibility and untrustworthiness."<ref>Olson, Greta: ''Reconsidering Unreliability: Fallible and Untrustworthy Narrators.'' In: ''Narrative.'' Nr. 11, 2003, S. 93–109.</ref> She proffers that all fictional texts that employ the device of unreliability can best be considered along a spectrum of fallibility that begins with trustworthiness and ends with unreliability. This model allows for all shades of grey in between the poles of trustworthiness and unreliability. It is consequently up to each individual reader to determine the credibility of a narrator in a fictional text.