Editing Uto-Aztecan languages (section)

==Classification==
===History of classification===
Uto-Aztecan has been accepted by linguists as a language family since the early 1900s, and six subgroups are generally accepted as valid: [[Numic]], [[Takic languages|Takic]], Pimic, [[Taracahitic languages|Taracahitic]], [[Corachol languages|Corachol]], and [[Nahuan languages|Aztecan]]. That leaves two ungrouped languages: [[Tübatulabal language|Tübatulabal]] and [[Hopi language|Hopi]] (sometimes termed "[[Language isolate|isolates]] within the family"). Some recent studies have begun to question the unity of Taracahitic and Takic and computer-assisted statistical studies have begun to question some of the long-held assumptions and consensuses.  As to higher-level groupings, disagreement has persisted since the 19th century. Presently scholars also disagree as to where to draw language boundaries within the [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]].

The similarities among the Uto-Aztecan languages were noted as early as 1859 by [[J. C. E. Buschmann]], but he failed to recognize the [[genetic (linguistics)|genetic]] affiliation between the Aztecan branch and the rest. He ascribed the similarities between the two groups to diffusion. [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]] added the Aztecan languages to the family in 1891 and coined the term Uto-Aztecan. [[John Wesley Powell]], however, rejected the claim in his own classification of North American indigenous languages (also published in 1891). Powell recognized two language families: "Shoshonean" (encompassing Takic, Numic, Hopi, and Tübatulabal) and "Sonoran" (encompassing Pimic, Taracahitan, and Corachol). In the early 1900s [[Alfred L. Kroeber]] filled in the picture of the Shoshonean group,{{sfn|Kroeber|1907}} while [[Edward Sapir]] proved the unity among Aztecan, "Sonoran", and "Shoshonean".{{sfn|Sapir|1913}}{{sfn|Kroeber|1934}}{{sfn|Whorf|1935}} Sapir's applications of the [[Historical linguistics|comparative method]] to unwritten Native American languages are regarded as groundbreaking.{{citation needed|date=June 2011}} {{Harvcoltxt|Voegelin|Voegelin|Hale|1962}} argued for a three-way division of Shoshonean, Sonoran and Aztecan, following Powell.{{sfn|Steele|1979}}

As of about 2011, there is still debate about whether to accept the proposed basic split between "Northern Uto-Aztecan" and "Southern Uto-Aztecan" languages.{{sfn|Caballero|2011}} Northern Uto-Aztecan corresponds to Powell's "Shoshonean", and the latter is all the rest: Powell's "Sonoran" plus Aztecan. Northern Uto-Aztecan was proposed as a genetic grouping by [[Jeffrey Heath]] in {{harvcoltxt|Heath|1978}} based on morphological evidence, and [[Alexis Manaster Ramer]] in {{harvcoltxt|Manaster Ramer|1992}} adduced phonological evidence in the form of a sound law. [[Terrence Kaufman]] in {{harvcoltxt|Kaufman|1981}} accepted the basic division into Northern and Southern branches as valid. Other scholars have rejected the genealogical unity of either both nodes or the Northern node alone.{{sfn|Goddard|1996|p=7}}{{sfn|Miller|1983|p=118}}{{sfn|Miller|1984}}{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=539-540}} [[Wick R. Miller]]'s argument was statistical, arguing that Northern Uto-Aztecan languages displayed too few cognates to be considered a unit. On the other hands he found the number of cognates among Southern Uto-Aztecan languages to suggest a genetic relation.{{sfn|Miller|1984}} This position was supported by subsequent lexicostatistic analyses by {{harvcoltxt|Cortina-Borja|Valiñas-Coalla|1989}} and {{harvcoltxt|Cortina-Borja|Stuart-Smith|Valiñas-Coalla|2002}}. Reviewing the debate, {{harvcoltxt|Haugen|2008}} considers the evidence in favor of the genetic unity of Northern Uto-Aztecan to be convincing, but remains agnostic on the validity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as a genetic grouping. {{harvcoltxt|Hill|2011}} also considered the north–south split to be valid based on phonological evidence, confirming both groupings. {{harvcoltxt|Merrill|2013}} adduced further evidence for the unity of Southern Uto-Aztecan as a valid grouping.

{{harvcoltxt|Hill|2011}} also rejected the validity of the Takic grouping decomposing it into a Californian areal grouping together with Tubatulabal.

Some classifications have posited a genetic relation between Corachol and Nahuan (e.g. {{harvcoltxt|Merrill|2013}}). [[Terrence Kaufman|Kaufman]] recognizes similarities between Corachol and Aztecan, but explains them by diffusion instead of genetic evolution.{{sfn|Kaufman|2001|loc=[http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm]}} Most scholars view the breakup of Proto-Uto-Aztecan as a case of the gradual disintegration of a dialect continuum.{{sfn|Mithun|1999|p=}}

===Present scheme===
Below is a representation of the internal classification of the language family based on {{harvcoltxt|Shaul|2014}}. The classification reflects the decision to split up the previous Taracahitic and Takic groups, that are no longer considered to be valid genetic units. Whether the division between Northern and Southern languages is best understood as geographical or phylogenetic is under discussion. The table contains demographic information about number of speakers and their locations based on data from [[The Ethnologue]]. The table also contains links to a selected bibliography of grammars, dictionaries on many of the individual languages.(<sup>{{extinct}}</sup> = [[extinct language|extinct]])

<div align=center>
{| class="toc" width=100% style="float:center; margin: 0.5em 0.5em 0.5em 1em; padding: 0.5em; text-align:left;clear:all; margin-left:3px; font-size:90%"
|colspan=7 style="background:#black; color:white; font-size:120%" align=center bgcolor="black"|''' Genealogical classification of Uto-Aztecan languages'''
|-
| style="background:#CFCFCF;" align=center width=10% | '''Family'''
| colspan=3 style="background:#CFCFCF;" align=center width=30% | '''Groups'''
| style="background:#CFCFCF;" align=center width=15% | '''Languages'''
| style="background:#CFCFCF;" align=center width=25% | '''Where spoken and approximate number of speakers'''
| style="background:#CFCFCF;" align=center width=15% | '''Works'''
|-
| rowspan=30 style="background:#e9e9e9;" | '''Uto-Aztecan languages'''
| rowspan=13 style="background:#CDC1C5;"| '''Northern Uto-Aztecan ''' <br>(possibly an areal grouping)
| rowspan=7 style="background:#EEE0E5;" | '''[[Numic languages|Numic]]'''
| rowspan=2 style="background:#EEE0A5;" | '''Western Numic'''
| style="background:white;" | [[Northern Paiute language|Paviotso, Bannock, Northern Paiute]]
| style="background:white;" | 700 speakers in California, Oregon, Idaho and Nevada
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Nichols|1973}}
|-
| style="background:white;" | [[Mono language (California)|Mono]]
| style="background:white;" | About 40 speakers in California
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Lamb|1958}}
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:#EEE0C5;" | '''Central Numic'''
| style="background:white;" | [[Shoshoni language|Shoshoni, Goshiute]]
| style="background:white;" | 1000 fluent speakers and 1000 learners in Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, Idaho
| style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|McLaughlin|2012}}
|-
| style="background:white;" | [[Comanche language|Comanche]]
| style="background:white;" | Less than 9 native speakers<ref name="Duncan">{{cite news|last=Reddin|first=Gary|date=2022-08-18|title=Comanche language 'critically endangered'|url=https://www.duncanbanner.com/community/comanche-language-critically-endangered/article_3fc89eba-1e7d-11ed-959f-2700ca922e14.html|work=The Duncan Banner|access-date=2023-05-11}}</ref>
| style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Robinson|Armagost|1990}}
|-
| style="background:white;" | [[Timbisha language|Timbisha (Panamint)]]
| style="background:white;" | 20 speakers in California and Nevada
| style="background:white;" |{{Harvcoltxt|Dayley|1989}}
|-
|rowspan=2 style="background:#EEE0E5;" | '''Southern Numic'''
| style="background:white;" | [[Colorado River language|Colorado River dialect chain]]: [[Ute dialect|Ute]], [[Southern Paiute language|Southern Paiute]], [[Chemehuevi language|Chemehuevi]]
| style="background:white;" | 920 speakers of all dialects, in Colorado, Nevada, California, Utah, Arizona
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Givón|2011}}, {{harvcoltxt|Press|1979}}, {{harvcoltxt|Sapir|1992}}
|-
| style="background:white;" | [[Kawaiisu language|Kawaiisu]]
| style="background:white;" | 5 speakers in California
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Zigmond|Booth|Munro|1991}}
|-
| rowspan=4 style="background:#FFF0F5;" |Californian<br />language<br />area
| rowspan=1 style="background:#FFF0F5;" |'''Serran'''
| style="background:white;"   | [[Serrano language|Serrano]] {{extinct}}, [[Kitanemuk language|Kitanemuk]] {{extinct}}, [[Tataviam language|Tataviam]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | No native speakers
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Hill|1967}}
|-
| rowspan=1 style="background:#FFF0F5;" | '''Cupan'''
| style="background:white;"   | [[Cahuilla language|Cahuilla]] {{extinct}}, [[Cupeño language|Cupeño]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | No native speakers
|style="background:white;"   |{{harvcoltxt|Seiler|1977}}, {{harvcoltxt|Hill|2005}}
|-
| rowspan=1 style="background:#FFF0F5;" |
| style="background:white;" | [[Luiseño language|Luiseño-Juaneño]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;" | No native speakers
|style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Kroeber|Grace|1960}}
|-
| rowspan=1 style="background:#FFF0F5" |
| style="background:white;" | [[Tongva language|Tongva (Gabrielino-Fernandeño)]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;" | Last native speakers died in early 1900s, in 21st century undergoing revival efforts, Southern California 
| style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Munro|Gabrielino/Tongva Language Committee|2008}}
|-
| rowspan=1 style="background:#F6CCDA;" | '''Hopi'''
| style="background:#F6CCDA;" | 
| style="background:white;" | [[Hopi language|Hopi]]
| style="background:white;" | 6,800 speakers in northeastern Arizona
| style="background:white;"  |{{harvcoltxt|Hopi Dictionary Project|1998}}, {{harvcoltxt|Jeanne|1978}}  
|-
| rowspan=1 style="background:#EEE0E5;" | '''Tübatulabal'''
| style="background:#EEE0E5;" | 
| style="background:white;" | [[Tübatulabal language|Tübatulabal]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;" | Last native speaker died in July 2008, undergoing revival efforts.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Pahka'anil Language |last=Ahland |first=Michael |website=The Pahka'anil (Tübatulabal) Text Project |url=https://web.csulb.edu/colleges/cla/projects/lingresearch/pahka%27anil/ |access-date=May 21, 2023}}</ref> Spoken in [[Kern River|Kern]] Valley
| style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Voegelin|1935}}, {{harvcoltxt|Voegelin|1958}}
|-
| rowspan=17 style="background:#EE8262" | '''Southern Uto-Aztecan'''<br>(possibly an areal grouping)
| rowspan=5 style="background:#FF8C69;" | '''[[Tepiman]]'''
| rowspan=2 style="background:#EECBAD;" | '''Pimic'''
| style="background:white;"   | [[O'odham language|O'odham (Pima-Papago)]]
| style="background:white;"   | 14,000 speakers in southern Arizona, US and northern Sonora, Mexico
| style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Zepeda|1983}}
|-
| style="background:white;"   | [[Pima Bajo language|Pima Bajo (O'ob No'ok)]] 
| style="background:white;"   | 650 speakers in Chihuahua and Sonora, Mexico 
| style="background:white;"  |{{harvcoltxt|Estrada-Fernández|1998}}
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FFDAB9;"  | '''Tepehuan'''
| style="background:white;"   | [[Northern Tepehuan language|Northern Tepehuan]]
| style="background:white;"   | 6,200 speakers in Chihuahua, Mexico
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Bascom|1982}}
|-
| style="background:white;"   | [[Southern Tepehuan language|Southern Tepehuan]]
| style="background:white;"   | 10,600 speakers in Southeastern Durango
|style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Willett|1991}}
|-
| style="background:white;"   | [[Tepecano language|Tepecano]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | Extinct since approx. 1985, spoken in Northern Jalisco
|style="background:white;" |{{harvcoltxt|Mason|1916}}
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:#FEE8D6;" | '''[[Tarahumaran languages|Tarahumaran]]'''
| style="background:#FEE8D6;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Tarahumara language|Tarahumara]] (several varieties)
| style="background:white;"   | 45,500 speakers of all varieties, all spoken in Chihuahua
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Caballero|2008}}
|-
| style="background:#FEE8D6;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Upriver Guarijio language|Upriver Guarijio]], [[Downriver Guarijio language|Downriver Guarijio]]
| style="background:white;"   | 2,840 speakers in Chihuahua and Sonora
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Miller|1996}}
|-
| style="background:#FEE8D6;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Tubar language|Tubar]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | Spoken in Sinaloa and Sonora
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Lionnet|1978}}
|-
| rowspan=2 style="background:#fefaf6;" | '''[[Cahitan languages|Cahita]]'''
| style="background:#fefaf6;"   |

| style="background:white;"   | [[Yaqui language|Yaqui (Hiaki)]]
| style="background:white;"   | 11,800 in Sonora and Arizona
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Dedrick|Casad|1999}}
|-
| style="background:#fefaf6;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Mayo language|Mayo]]
| style="background:white;"   | 33,000 in Sinaloa and Sonora
| style="background:white;"   |{{harvcoltxt|Freeze|1989}}
|-
| rowspan=2 style="background:#e4d0c0;"| '''Opatan'''
| style="background:#e4d0c0;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Opata language|Ópata]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | Extinct since approx. 1930. Spoken in Sonora.
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Shaul|2001}}
|-
| style="background:#e4d0c0;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Eudeve language|Eudeve]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | Spoken in Sonora, but extinct since 1940
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Lionnet|1986}}
|-
| rowspan=2 style="background:#FFCC99;" |'''[[Corachol languages|Corachol]]'''
| style="background:#FFCC99;"  |

| style="background:white;"   | [[Cora language|Cora]]
| style="background:white;"   | 13,600 speakers in northern Nayarit
|style="background:white;" | {{harvcoltxt|Casad|1984}}
|-
| style="background:#FFCC99;" | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Huichol language|Huichol]]
| style="background:white;"   | 17,800 speakers in Nayarit, Jalisco, and western Zacatecas.
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Iturrioz Leza|Ramírez de la Cruz|2001}}
|-
| rowspan=3 style="background:#E3A869;" |'''[[Nahuan languages|Aztecan]] (Nahuan)'''
| style="background:#E3A869;"  | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Pochutec language|Pochutec]] {{extinct}}
| style="background:white;"   | Extinct since 1970s, spoken on the coast of Oaxaca
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Boas|1917}}
|-
| style="background:#E3A869;" | Core Nahuan
| style="background:white;"   | [[Pipil language|Pipil]]
| style="background:white;"   | 20-40 speakers in El Salvador
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Campbell|1985}}
|-
| style="background:#E3A869;"   | 
| style="background:white;"   | [[Nahuatl]]
| style="background:white;"   | 1,500,000 speakers in Central Mexico
| style="background:white;"   | {{harvcoltxt|Launey|1986}}, {{harvcoltxt|Langacker|1979}}
|}
</div>
In addition to the above languages for which linguistic evidence exists, it is suspected that among dozens of now extinct, undocumented or poorly known languages of northern Mexico, many were Uto-Aztecan.{{sfn|Campbell|1997|p=}}

===Extinct languages===
{{main|List of extinct Uto-Aztecan languages}}
{{see also|List of extinct languages of North America}}
A large number of languages known only from brief mentions are thought to have been Uto-Aztecan languages that became extinct before being documented.{{sfn|Campbell|1997|pages=133–135}}

===Proposed external relations===
{{main|Aztec–Tanoan languages}}
An "Aztec–Tanoan" macrofamily that unites the Uto-Aztecan languages with the [[Tanoan languages]] of the southwestern United States was first proposed by [[Edward Sapir]] in the early 20th century, and later supported with potential lexical evidence by other scholars. This proposal has received much criticism about the validity of the proposed cognate sets and has been largely abandoned since the end of the last century as unproven.<ref>[[Lyle Campbell|Campbell, Lyle]]. (1997). ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 269–273.</ref>