Editing Valens (section)

== Reign ==
[[File:Valens114cng (obverse).jpg|alt=|thumb|A ''solidus'' of Valens with a pearl diadem and a roseate ''[[Fibula (brooch)|fibula]]'']]
[[File:Valens114cng (reverse).jpg|thumb|Reverse of a ''solidus'' of Valens, marked: {{Smallcaps|restitutor reipublicae}} ("''the restitutor of the Republic''") and showing the emperor holding a ''[[vexillum]]'' and a globe supporting a [[Victoria (mythology)|Victory]], who crowns him with a [[laurel wreath]] ]]
Both emperors were briefly ill, delaying them in Constantinople (Istanbul).{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=81}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=22}}{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=522}} As soon as they recovered, the two ''augusti'' travelled together through [[Adrianople]] and [[Naissus]] to [[Mediana]], where they divided their territories. Valens obtained the eastern half of the Empire: [[Greece]], the [[Balkans]], [[Egypt]], [[Anatolia]] and the [[Levant]] as far as the border with the [[Sasanian Empire]]. Valentinian took the western half, where the [[Alemanni]]c wars required his immediate attention.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|p=849}}<ref>Noel Emmanuel Lenski (2002). ''Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D.''. University of California Press. {{full citation needed|date=April 2022}}</ref> The brothers began their consulships in their respective capitals, Constantinople and [[Mediolanum]] ([[Milan]]).{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=22}}{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=82}}

In the summer of 365, the [[365 Crete earthquake]] and ensuing tsunami caused destruction around the Eastern Mediterranean.{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=36}}

The empire had recently retreated from most of its holdings in [[Mesopotamia (Roman province)|Mesopotamia]] and [[Roman Armenia|Armenia]], because of a treaty that Jovian had made with [[Shapur II]] of the Sasanian Empire. Valens' first priority after the winter of 365 was to move east in hopes of shoring up the situation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Roman Emperors - DIR Valens |url=https://roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu/valens.htm |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=roman-emperors.sites.luc.edu}}</ref>

=== Usurpation of Procopius (365–366) ===
Recent tax increases,<ref name=":8">{{Citation|last1=Bond|first1=Sarah|title=Procopius|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3882|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|year=2018|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=2020-10-28|last2=Haarer|first2=Fiona|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031191045/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3882|url-status=live}}</ref> and Valens' dismissal of Julian's popular minister [[Salutius]], contributed to a general disaffection and to the acceptability of a revolution.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=850–852}} With the emperor absent from the imperial city, [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]], a maternal cousin of Julian, declared himself ''augustus'' on 28 September 365.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=89}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=42}} Procopius had held office under Constantius II and Julian{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=39}} and was rumored to have been Julian's intended successor,{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=89}} despite how he had died without naming one.{{sfn|Potter|2004|p=518}} Jovian, aside from depriving him of his command, took no measures against this potential rival, but Valentinian regarded Procopius with hostility.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|p=850}} Procopius met the danger from the new emperors with his own bid for power, emphasizing his connection to the revered [[Constantinian Dynasty]]: during his public appearances he was always accompanied by Constantia, the posthumous daughter of Constantius II, and her mother [[Faustina (wife of Constantius II)|Faustina]], the [[dowager]] empress.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013}}

News of the revolt reached Valens at Caesarea ([[Kayseri]]) in Cappadocia,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Lenski|first1=Noel Emmanuel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uvXo39xOV8kC&pg=PA88|title=Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. |last2=Lenski |first2=Noel Emmanuel |date=2002 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-23332-4}}</ref> after most of his troops had already crossed the [[Cilician Gates]] into [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. His first reaction was despair, and he considered abdication and perhaps even suicide.{{sfn|Lenski|1997}} Procopius quickly gained control of the provinces of [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] and [[Bithynia]], winning increasing support for his insurrection. Valens recovered his nerve and sent an army to Constantinople; according to Ammianus Marcellinus, the soldiers defected to Procopius, whose use of his Constantinian hostages had met with some success.{{sfn|McEvoy|2013}}<ref name=":8" />

Having reappointed Salutius, Valens dispatched more troops under veteran generals, [[Arinthaeus]] and [[Arbitio]], to march on Procopius.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=852–853}} According to Ammianus Marcellinus and the later Greek historians Socrates Scholasticus and [[Sozomen]], the forces of Valens eventually prevailed after eight months, defeating Procopius in battles at [[Battle of Thyatira|Thyatira]] and [[Nacoleia]].{{sfn|Kienast|2017|pp=316–318, "Valens"}}<ref name=":8" /> On both occasions, Procopius was deserted by his own following in fear of their adversaries' formidable commanders. Put on trial by members of his own escort, Procopius was executed on 27 May 366.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=853–854}} Ammianus Marcellinus relates that Procopius' relative [[Marcellus (usurper)|Marcellus]] was proclaimed emperor in his place, but according to Zosimus he was swiftly captured and executed.{{sfn|Kienast|2017|pp=316–318, "Valens"}} Valens could turn his attention back to external enemies, the [[Sasanian Empire]] and the [[Goths]].<ref name=":1" />
[[File:Valenscng85001223.jpg|thumb|Coin of Valens after his ''quinquennalia'' on 25 February 369, showing the three reigning emperors on the reverse marked: {{Smallcaps|spes {{abbreviation|r p|REI PUBLICAE}}}} ("''the hope of the Republic''")]]

=== First Gothic War: 367–369 ===
{{Main|Gothic wars#Gothic war: 367–369}}
[[File:Athanaric_and_Valens_on_the_Danbue.png|thumb|260x260px|''Athanaric and Valens on the Danube'', [[Eduard Bendemann]], 1860]]
During Procopius' insurrection, the [[Goths|Gothic]] king [[Ermanaric]], who ruled a powerful kingdom north of the [[Danube]] from the [[Euxine]] to the [[Baltic Sea]],{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=890–891}} had engaged to supply him with troops for the struggle against Valens. The Gothic army, reportedly numbering 30,000 men, arrived too late to help Procopius, but nevertheless invaded [[Thrace]] and began plundering the farms and vineyards of the province. Valens, marching north after defeating Procopius, surrounded them with a superior force and forced them to surrender. Ermanaric protested, and when Valens, encouraged by Valentinian, refused to make atonement to the Goths for his conduct, war was declared.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=892–893}}

In spring 367, Valens crossed the Danube and attacked the [[Visigoths]] under [[Athanaric]], Ermanaric's tributary. The Goths fled into the [[Carpathian Mountains]], and the campaign ended with no decisive conclusion. The following spring, a Danube flood prevented Valens from crossing; instead the Emperor occupied his troops with the construction of fortifications. In 369, Valens crossed again, from [[Noviodunum (castra)|Noviodunum]], and by devastating the country forced Athanaric into  [[Battle of Noviodunum|giving battle]]. Valens was victorious, and took the title ''Gothicus Maximus'' in time for the celebration of his ''[[quinquennalia]]''.{{sfn|Kienast|2017|pp=316–318, "Valens"}} Athanaric and his forces were able to withdraw in good order and pleaded for peace.

Fortunately for the Goths, Valens expected a new war with the [[Sasanid Empire]] in the [[Middle East]] and was therefore willing to come to terms. In early 370 Valens and Athanaric met in the middle of the Danube and agreed to a treaty that ended the war.<ref name=":1" /><ref>Hughes, Ian, ''Imperial Brothers'',{{full citation needed|date=April 2022}} pp. 86–95.</ref> The treaty seems to have largely cut off relations between Goths and Romans, confining [[trade]] and the exchange of troops for tribute.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=93–94}}
[[File:Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence (32212815186).jpg|thumb|Portrait head of Valens, or his brother, on a modern bust historically mislabelled as Constantine ([[Uffizi]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=954 |title=http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-582 (J. Lenaghan) |access-date=27 June 2024 |archive-date=26 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626204704/http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk/database/discussion.php?id=954 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

=== Persian War: 373 ===
As mentioned before, among Valens' reasons for contracting a hasty and not entirely favorable peace in 369 was the deteriorating state of affairs in the East. Jovian had surrendered Rome's much disputed claim to control over Armenia in 363, and [[Shapur II]] was eager to make good on this new opportunity. The Persian emperor began enticing Armenian lords over to his camp and eventually forced the defection of the [[Arsacid dynasty of Armenia|Arsacid]] Armenian king, [[Arshak II]] (Arsaces II), whom he quickly arrested and incarcerated. The Armenian nobility responded by asking Valens to return Arshak's son, [[Pap of Armenia|Pap]].<ref name="AM27129">Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 27.12.9.</ref> Valens agreed and sent Pap back to Armenia, but as these events took place during the war with the Goths he could not support him militarily.<ref name="AM27129" />

In response to the return of Pap, Shapur personally led an invasion force to seize control of Armenia.<ref name="AM27121011">Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 27.12.10–11.</ref> Pap and his followers took refuge in the mountains while [[Artaxata]], the Armenian capital, and the city of Artogerassa along with several strongholds and castles were destroyed.<ref name="AM27121011" /> Shapur sent a second invasion force to [[Caucasian Iberia]] to drive out the pro-Roman king [[Sauromaces II of Iberia|Sauromaces II]], and put his own appointee, Sauromaces's uncle [[Aspacures II of Iberia|Aspacures II]], on the throne.

In the summer following his Gothic settlement, Valens sent his ''[[magister peditum]]'' (Master of Foot) [[Flavius Arinthaeus|Arinthaeus]] to support Pap.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Res Gestae'', 27.12.13.</ref> The following spring twelve legions were sent under [[Terentius (comes et dux Armeniae)|Terentius]] to regain Iberia and to garrison Armenia near Mount Npat. When Shapur counterattacked into Armenia in 371, his forces were bested by Valens' generals [[Traianus (magister peditum)|Traianus]] and [[Vadomarius]] and the Armenian ''[[sparapet]]'' (general) [[Mushegh I Mamikonian|Mushegh Mamikonian]] at [[Battle of Bagrevand (372)|Bagavan]] and [[Gandzak, Armenia|Gandzak]].<ref>Hughes, Ian, ''Imperial Brothers'',{{full citation needed|date=April 2022}} pp. 102–106.</ref> Valens had overstepped the 363 treaty and then successfully defended his transgression. A truce settled after the 371 victory held as a quasi-peace for the next five years while Shapur was forced to deal with a [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] invasion on his eastern frontier.

Meanwhile, troubles broke out with the boy-king Pap, who purportedly had the Armenian patriarch [[Nerses I|Nerses]] assassinated and demanded control of a number of Roman cities, including [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]. Controversy also ensued over the issue of the appointment of a new patriarch of Armenia, with Pap appointing a candidate without the traditional approval from Caesarea. Pressed by his generals and fearing that Pap would defect to the Persians, Valens made an unsuccessful attempt to capture the prince and later had him executed inside Armenia. In his stead, Valens imposed another Arsacid, [[Varazdat]], who ruled under the regency of the ''sparapet'' Mushegh Mamikonian, a friend of Rome.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

None of this sat well with the Persians, who began agitating again for compliance with the 363 treaty. As the eastern frontier heated up in 375, Valens began preparations for a major expedition. Meanwhile, trouble was brewing elsewhere. In [[Isauria]], the mountainous region of western [[Cilicia]], a major revolt had broken out in 375 which diverted troops formerly stationed in the East. Furthermore, by 377, the [[Saracens]] under [[Mavia (queen)|Queen Mavia]] had broken into revolt and devastated a swath of territory stretching from [[Phoenice (Roman province)|Phoenicia]] and [[Syria Palaestina|Palestine]] as far as the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. Though Valens successfully brought both uprisings under control, the opportunities for action on the eastern frontier were limited by these skirmishes closer to home.
[[File:Valens aquädukt02.jpg|thumb|[[Aqueduct of Valens]] in [[Constantinople]], capital of the eastern Roman Empire]]
[[File:KHM Wien 32.482 - Valens medal, 375-78 AD.jpg|thumb|Obverse of a medal of Valens, set in a later pendant and found in the [[Șimleu Silvaniei]], a [[hoard]] from the second quarter of the 5th century ([[Kunsthistorisches Museum]])]]

=== Later reign: 373–376 ===
Valens became the senior ''augustus'' on 17 November 375, after his older brother Valentinian died suddenly at Brigetio ([[Szőny]]) while on campaign against the [[Quadi]] in Pannonia.{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=86}}<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last1=Bond|first1=Sarah|title=Gratian|url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2105|work=The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity|year=2018|editor-last=Nicholson|editor-first=Oliver|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-866277-8|access-date=2020-10-25|last2=Nicholson|first2=Oliver|archive-date=28 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028211058/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-2105|url-status=live}}</ref> In the west, Valentinian was succeeded by his elder son [[Gratian]], co-emperor since 367,{{sfn|Curran|1998|pp=83–84}}{{sfn|Hughes|2013|p=60}} and his younger son [[Valentinian II]], whom the army on the Danube proclaimed ''augustus'' without consulting Gratian or Valens.{{sfn|Errington|2006|p=26}}{{sfn|Curran|1998|p=86}}

=== Second Gothic War: 376–378 ===
{{Main|Gothic War (376–382)}}

Valens' eastern campaign required an ambitious recruitment program, designed to fill gaps left in his mobile forces when troops were transferred to the Western Empire in 374. Meanwhile, migrations of the [[Huns]] began to displace the Goths, who sought Roman protection.<ref name=":1" /> Refugees from the former kingdom of [[Ermanaric]], unable to hold the [[Dniester]] or [[Prut]] rivers against Hunnic invaders, retreated southward in a massive emigration, seeking more defensible lands on the Roman side of the [[Danube]]. In 376, the [[Visigoths]] under their leader [[Fritigern]] advanced to the far shores of the lower Danube and sent requests for asylum to Valens in [[Antioch]].{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=920–923}}

Valens granted permission for a Danube crossing to Fritigern and his followers,<ref name=":1" /> who had allied with the Romans in the 370s against Athanaric's persecution of [[Gothic Christians]], and, it was hoped, could now be hired to bolster the eastern army. The Gothic troops would have to be paid in gold or silver, but their presence would decrease Valens' dependence on conscription from the provinces—thereby increasing revenues from the recruitment tax. Though a number of Gothic groups apparently requested entry, Valens granted admission only to Fritigern's people. Others would soon follow, however.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|p=925}}

Valens' mobile forces were tied down on the Persian frontier, where the emperor was attempting to withdraw from the harsh terms imposed by Shapur and was meeting some resistance on the latter's part. This meant that only ''[[limitanei]]'' units were present to oversee the arrival of Fritigern and his Goths, to the number of 200,000 warriors and almost a million all told. The sparse imperial troops could not stop subsequent Danube crossings by groups of [[Ostrogoths]], [[Huns]], and [[Alans]], none of whom had been included in the original treaty. The controlled resettlement foreseen by the government threatened to turn into a major invasion, and the situation was worsened by corruption in the local Roman administration. Valens' generals accepted bribes rather than depriving the Goths of their weapons as Valens had stipulated, then enraged the settlers by imposing exorbitant prices for food.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=925–926}} In early 377, the Goths revolted after a commotion with the people of [[Marcianopolis]], and defeated the corrupt Roman governor [[Lupicinus (comes per Thracias)|Lupicinus]] near the city at the [[Battle of Marcianople]].{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=927–928}}

After joining forces with the [[Ostrogoths]] under [[Alatheus and Saphrax]] who had crossed without Valens' consent, the combined barbarian group spread out to devastate the country before combining to meet Roman advance forces under Traianus and [[Richomeres]]. In a sanguinary [[Battle of the Willows|battle at ''Ad Salices'']], the Goths were momentarily checked,{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=931–932}} and [[Saturninus (consul 383)|Saturninus]], now Valens' lieutenant in the province, undertook a strategy of hemming them in between the lower [[Danube]] and the [[Euxine]], hoping to starve them into surrender. However, Fritigern forced him to retreat by inviting some of the [[Huns]] to cross the river in the rear of Saturninus' ranged defenses. The Romans then fell back, incapable of containing the irruption, though with an elite force of his best soldiers the general Sebastian was able to fall upon and destroy several of the smaller predatory bands.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|p=935}}

Valens requested assistance in Thrace from his nephew and co-emperor Gratian, but ultimately took the offensive before Gratian could join him.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Leaving behind a skeletal force—some of them Goths—the eastern army withdrew from the frontier, reaching Constantinople by 30 May, 378. The imperial councillors, ''[[comes]]''  Richomeres, the generals [[Frigeridus (general)|Frigeridus]] and [[Victor (magister equitum)|Victor]], and letters from Gratian all cautioned Valens to wait for the arrival of the western army, but the populace of Constantinople became impatient at the delay. Public opinion criticized Valens for failing to control the Goths after inviting them into his territory, and compared him unfavourably with Gratian as a military commander.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=934–935}} Valens decided to advance at once and win a victory on his own.{{sfn|Gibbon|1932|pp=935–936}}
[[File:INC-1867-a Солид. Валент II. Ок. 375—378 гг. (аверс).png|thumb|''Solidus'' of Valens]]

=== Battle of Adrianople ===
{{Main|Battle of Adrianople}}
According to the Latin historians Ammianus Marcellinus and [[Paulus Orosius]], on 9 August 378, Valens and most of his army were killed fighting the Goths near Hadrianopolis in Thrace (Adrianople, [[Edirne]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> Ammianus is the primary source for the battle.<ref>''Historiae'', 31.12–13.</ref>

Valens opened the campaign with arrangements aimed at building his troop strength and gaining a toehold in Thrace, then moved out to Adrianople, from whence he marched against the confederated barbarian army. Although negotiations were attempted, these broke down when a Roman unit sallied forth and carried both sides into battle. Valens had left a sizeable guard with his baggage and treasures, depleting his force. His right cavalry wing arrived at the Gothic camp sometime before the left wing arrived. It was a very hot day and the Roman cavalry was engaged without strategic support, wasting its efforts and suffering in the heat.
{{cn|date=February 2024}}

Meanwhile, Fritigern once again sent an emissary of peace in his continued manipulation of the situation. The resultant delay meant that the Romans present on the field began to succumb to the heat. The army's resources were further diminished when an ill-timed attack by the Roman archers made it necessary to recall Valens' emissary, ''comes'' Richomeres. The archers were beaten and retreated in humiliation. Returning from foraging to find the battle in full swing, Gothic cavalry under the command of Alatheus and Saphrax now struck and, in what was probably the most decisive event of the battle, the Roman cavalry fled.

From here, Ammianus gives two accounts of Valens' demise. In the first account, Ammianus states that Valens was "mortally wounded by an arrow, and presently breathed his last breath" (XXXI.12). His body was never found or given a proper burial. In the second account, Ammianus states the Roman infantry was abandoned, surrounded and cut to pieces. Valens was wounded and carried to a small wooden hut. He died when the Goths, evidently unaware of the prize within, set the hut on fire (XXXI.13.14–16).

A third, apocryphal, account states that Valens was struck in the face by a Gothic dart and then perished while leading a charge. He wore no helmet, in order to encourage his men. This action turned the tide of the battle which resulted in a [[tactical victory]] but a strategic loss. The church historian [[Socrates of Constantinople|Socrates]] likewise gives two accounts for the death of Valens.

<blockquote>Some have asserted that he was burnt to death in a village whither he had retired, which the barbarians assaulted and set on fire. But others affirm that having put off his imperial robe he ran into the midst of the main body of infantry; and that when the cavalry revolted and refused to engage, the infantry were surrounded by the barbarians, and completely destroyed in a body. Among these it is said the Emperor fell, but could not be distinguished, in consequence of his not having on his imperial habit.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Ecclesiastical History |volume=VI.38 |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.vii.xxxviii.html |access-date=6 March 2009 |archive-date=31 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231223026/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.vii.xxxviii.html |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

When the battle was over, two-thirds of the eastern army lay dead. Many of their best officers had also perished. What was left of the army of Valens was led from the field under the cover of night by ''comes'' Richomeres and general Victor.

[[J. B. Bury]], a noted historian of the period, provides a specific interpretation on the significance of the battle: it was "a disaster and disgrace that need not have occurred."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rbedrosian.com/Ref/Bury/ieb4.htm |title=The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians |last=Bury |first=John Bagnell |access-date=15 February 2022}}</ref>

For Rome, the battle incapacitated the government. Emperor Gratian, nineteen years old, was unable to deal with the catastrophe, until he appointed [[Theodosius I]]. The total defeat cost the administration important precious metal resources, as bullion had been centralized with the imperial court.<ref name=":1" /> Valens was [[Imperial cult of ancient Rome|deified]] by ''consecratio'' as {{Langx|la|Divus Valens|links=no|lit=the Divine Valens}}.{{sfn|Kienast|2017|pp=316–318, "Valens"}}