Editing Veche (section)

==History==
===Origins===
[[Procopius|Procopius of Caesarea]] mentioned [[Slavs]] gathering in popular assemblies in the 6th century:{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}}
{{Blockquote|
But when the report was carried about and reached the entire nation, practically all the [[Antes people|Antae]] assembled to discuss the situation, and they demanded that the matter be made a public one(...).  For these nations, the [[Sclaveni]] and the Antae, are not ruled by one man, but they have lived from of old under a democracy, and consequently everything which involves their welfare, whether for good or ill, is referred to the people.<ref>''All the Slavs of Procopius'',  [https://www.jassa.org/?p=5425 In Nomine Jassa]</ref>
}}

The ''veche'' is thought to have originated in the tribal assemblies of [[Eastern Europe]], thus predating the state of [[Kievan Rus']].<ref name="hist"/><ref name="encyclopaedia"/>{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=421}} Although most authors have adopted this view, the evidence is not abundant and is mainly based on the statement of Procopius and a few other communications from foreign authors such as Byzantine emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'s ''[[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]]'', as well as a few chronicle mentions.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=421}} The [[Polans (eastern)|Poliane]] in Kiev, according to the ''[[Primary Chronicle]]'', are said to have consulted among themselves (''s"dumavshe poliane'') before deciding to ultimately pay tribute to the [[Khazars]].{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}} The words ''duma'' and ''dumati'' are used in later instances to refer to the activities of the ''veche''.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}} The ''Primary Chronicle'' also indicates the recognition of the people as a separate political agent in a 944 treaty with the [[Byzantine Empire]]: "And our grand prince [[Igor of Kiev|Igor]] and his boyars, and the whole people of Rus have sent us".{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}}

The earliest mentions of the ''veche'' in chronicles refer to examples in [[Bilhorod Kyivskyi|Belgorod]] in 997,{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=416}} [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]] in 1016,{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=147}} and [[Kyiv|Kiev]] in 1068.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=417}} A central role of the ''veche'' is found in the ''Suzdal Chronicle'' under the year 1176: "From of old the people of Novgorod, of [[Smolensk]], of Kiev, of [[Polotsk]], and of all the lands have assembled for counsel in veches".{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=417}} Some scholars have used this quote in their argument that the ''veche'' was a universal occurrence and has immemorial origins.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=417}} The assemblies discussed matters of war and peace, adopted laws, and called for and expelled rulers. In Kiev, the ''veche'' was summoned in front of the [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv|Cathedral of St. Sophia]].

The majority of references to ''veche'' meetings during the Kievan period is connected with dynastic crises.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=151}} There are not many references of a ''veche'' in towns in the 11th century, but there are significantly more in the 12th century, with such references mostly concerning Novgorod and Pskov.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}}<ref name="Langer">{{cite book |last1=Langer |first1=Lawrence N. |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia |date=15 September 2021 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-1942-6 |page=234 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8I6EAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> Medieval chronicles, such as the ''Primary Chronicle'', and the ''[[Novgorod First Chronicle]]'' for Novgorod especially, are the basic source regarding the ''veche''.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}} The ''Primary Chronicle'' remains the main source for the early history of Kievan Rus', but its narrative ends at 1116.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=148}} The next generation of chronicles, including the ''Suzdal Chronicle'', are also important sources.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|pp=415–418}} Following the [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus|Mongol invasions]], most references concern Novgorod and Pskov.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=148}}

=== Russia ===
Most of the information about the ''veche'' concerns the 13th to 15th centuries.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=429}} For ''veche'' proceedings, the ''veche'' had to be convoked first, often by the prince, but the main topic of the meeting usually was about a conflict between the prince and the population.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=429}} As a result, there was no regular procedure to be followed, which often led to violence among the participants.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=157}} There are several mentions of the prince being deposed and the crowd pillaging the residence of the prince.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=157}} Not much is known about actual proceedings except that the bishop could function as the chairman, while in other instances, the prince could assume this role.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=429}} The chronicles also mention the existence of a ''veche'' bell in not only Novgorod and Pskov, but also in [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]].{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=157}} Almost all that is known about treaty-making activities of towns concerns Novgorod, and to a lesser extent, Pskov.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2017|p=432}}

During the Mongol domination of Rus', there was little room for ''veche'' independence.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}} The cities in the northwest were less affected by Tatar overlordship, and so the institution survived longer there.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=159}} In 1262, ''veche'' meetings were held in [[Rostov, Yaroslavl Oblast|Rostov]], [[Suzdal]], Vladimir and [[Yaroslavl]], in which it was decided to throw out the tax collectors sent by the Tatars.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}} In 1304, the citizens of [[Kostroma]] and [[Nizhny Novgorod]] rebelled against the local aristocracy at the ''veche'' meetings.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}} There is also a final mention of a ''veche'' meeting in [[Moscow]] in 1382, when [[Tokhtamysh]] had launched a campaign against [[Dmitry Donskoy]].{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}} The latter had fled to Kostroma while the former had captured [[Serpukhov]] near the city of Moscow.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}} [[Nikolay Karamzin]] said that the people of Moscow "at the sound of the bells assembled for a ''veche'', remembering the ancient right of the Russian citizens to decide their own fate in important situations by a majority of votes".{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=158}}

==== Vladimir-Suzdal ====
A semi-legendary account of [[Aleksandr of Suzdal]] ({{reigned|1309|1331}}) moving the ''veche'' bell from Vladimir to his appanage center Suzdal during his reign as grand prince is found in chronicles:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pudalov |first1=B. M. |title=Русские земли Среднего Поволжья (вторая треть XIII – первая треть XIV в.) |trans-title=Russian lands of the Middle Volga region (second third of the 13th to first third of the 14th centuries) |date=2004 |publisher=Комитет по делам архивов Нижегородской области |location=Nizhny Novgorod |isbn=5-93413-023-4 |language=ru}}</ref><ref name="Tikhomirov"/>

{{Blockquote|text=
This Prince Alexander from Vladimir took the ''veche'' bell from the Church of the Holy Mother of God to Suzdal and the bell ceased to ring as in Vladimir. And Prince Alexander thought he had been rude to the Holy Mother of God, and he ordered it taken back to Vladimir. And when the bell was brought back and installed in its place, its peal once again became acceptable to God.<ref name="Tikhomirov">{{cite book |last1=Tikhomirov |first1=Mikhail N. |authorlink1=Mikhail Tikhomirov |title=The Towns of Ancient Rus |date=1959 |publisher=Foreign Languages Publishing House |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmdpAAAAMAAJ |language=en |page=227}}</ref>
|source=''Novgorod First Chronicle''}}

==== Novgorod Republic ====
{{Main|Novgorod veche}} 
[[File:Kolokol_uvoz.jpg|thumb|Removal of the ''veche'' bell from Novgorod to Moscow in 1478, miniature from the [[Illustrated Chronicle of Ivan the Terrible]] (16th century)]]
The [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]] ''veche'' was the highest [[Legislature|legislative]] and [[Judiciary|judicial authority]] in the city until 1478, after Novgorod was formally annexed by [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan&nbsp;III]].{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|pp=147–165}} Each of the ''[[kontsy]]'' (boroughs or "ends") of Novgorod also had their own ''veche'' to elect borough officials.<ref name="Langer"/> The ''veche'' for the city selected the prince, ''[[posadnik]]'' and archbishop.<ref name="Langer"/>

Historians debate whether the Novgorod ''veche'' consisted of entirely free males or was instead dominated by a small group of nobles known as [[boyar]]s.<ref name="Langer"/> The Novgorod ''veche'' grew to become more structured in a way that it could be compared to similar bodies in Italian and Flemish towns during the same period.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=160}} Traditional scholarship argues that a series of reforms in 1410 transformed the ''veche'' into something similar to the public assembly (''[[Concio]]'') of the [[Republic of Venice]]; it became the lower chamber of the parliament. An upper chamber knowns as the [[Sovet gospod|Council of Lords]] (''sovet gospod'') was also created which oversaw the ''veche'',<ref name="Langer"/> with title membership for all former city magistrates (''[[posadnik]]i'' and ''[[tysiatskii|tysyatskiye]]''). Some sources indicate that ''veche'' membership may have become full-time, and parliament deputies were now called ''vechniki''. Some recent scholars call this interpretation into question.

The Novgorod ''veche'' could be presumably summoned by anyone who rang the ''veche'' [[bell]], although it is more likely that the common procedure was more complex. The whole population of the city, including boyars, merchants, and common citizens, then gathered in front of the [[Cathedral of St. Sophia, Novgorod|Cathedral of Saint Sophia]] or at [[Yaroslav's Court]] on the [[Trade Side]].<ref name="Langer"/>

Of all other towns of [[Novgorod Land]], the chronicles only mention a ''veche'' in [[Torzhok]]; however they possibly existed in all other towns as well.<ref>{{cite book |script-title=ru:Русская республика (Севернорусские народоправства во времена удельно-вечевого уклада. История Новгорода, Пскова и Вятки)|last= Kostomarov|first= Nikolay|title= Russkaya Respublika|author-link= Nikolay Kostomarov|year= 2013|publisher= Pubmix.com|isbn= 9785424117350|pages= 213|language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |script-title=ru:Россия под властью царей|last= Stepnyak-Kravchinsky|first= Sergey|author-link= Sergey Stepnyak-Kravchinsky|year= 2013|publisher=Pubmix.com|isbn= 9785424119651|pages= 18|language=ru}}</ref>

==== Pskov Republic ====
{{Further|Pskov Republic#Internal organization}}
The ''veche'' of the [[Pskov Republic]] had legislative powers; it could appoint military commanders and hear ambassadors' reports. It also approved expenses such as grants to princes and payments to builders of walls, towers and bridges.<ref>{{cite book |title= Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики|last= Kafengauz|first= Berngardt|year= 1969|publisher= Nauka|language=ru|pages= 98–105}}</ref> The ''veche'' gathered at the court of the [[Trinity Cathedral, Pskov|Trinity Cathedral]], which held the archives of the ''veche'' and important private papers and state documents. The ''veche'' assembly included ''posadniki'' (mayors), "middle" and common people.<ref>{{cite book |title= Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики|last= Kafengauz|first= Berngardt|year= 1969|publisher= Nauka|language=ru|pages= 111}}</ref> Historians differ on the extent to which the ''veche'' was dominated by the elites, with some saying that real power was held in the hands of boyars, with others considering the ''veche'' to be a democratic institution.<ref>{{cite book |title= Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики|last= Kafengauz|first= Berngardt|year= 1969|publisher= Nauka|language=ru|pages= 85–90,110}}</ref> Conflicts were common and the confrontation between the ''veche'' and the ''posadniki'' in 1483–1484 led to the execution of one ''posadnik'' and the confiscation of the property of three other ''posadniki'' who fled to Moscow.<ref>{{cite book |title= Древний Псков. Очерки по истории феодальной республики|last= Kafengauz|first= Berngardt|year= 1969|publisher= Nauka|language=ru|pages= 74}}</ref> The most significant achievement of the Pskov ''veche'' was the adoption of the [[Pskov Judicial Charter]], likely after 1462, which was the most comprehensive Russian legislation enacted until the [[Sudebnik of 1497]] under Ivan&nbsp;III, the first collection of laws of the unified state.{{sfn|Feldbrugge|2009|p=160}}

The unification of Russia gave rise to a new political system characterized by the dominance of the grand prince, who viewed the country as his personal patrimony and dismantled traditional institutions like the ''veche''.{{sfn|Riasanovsky|Steinberg|2019|page=85}} In the autumn of 1509, Grand Prince [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasily III]] visited Novgorod, where he received complaints from the Pskov ''veche'' against the Muscovite governor of the city.{{sfn|Crummey|2014|page=92}} At first, Vasily encouraged complaints against the governor, but soon demanded that the city abolish its traditional institutions, including the removal of the ''veche'' bell.{{sfn|Crummey|2014|page=92}} From that point on, Pskov was to be ruled exclusively by his governors and officials, and on 13 January 1510, the ''veche'' bell was removed and transported to Moscow.{{sfn|Crummey|2014|page=92}}

===Poland===
[[Image:Wiec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg|thumb|right|A ''wiec'' in the time of [[Poland]]'s King [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III]] ({{reign|1333|1370}})]]
The ''veche'', known in Poland as ''wiec'', were convened even before the beginning of the Polish statehood in the [[History of Poland during the Piast dynasty|Kingdom of Poland]].<ref name="bardach202627"/> Issues were first debated by the elders and leaders, and later presented to all the free men for a wider discussion.<ref name="bardach202627"/><ref name="bardach63-64"/>

One of the major types of ''wiec'' was the one convened to choose a new ruler.<ref name="bardach202627"/> There are legends of a 9th-century [[election]] of the legendary founder of the [[Piast dynasty]], [[Piast the Wheelwright]], and a similar election of his son, [[Siemowit]], but sources for that time come from the later centuries and their validity is disputed by scholars.<ref name="Davies2001"/><ref name="Roszko1980"/> The election privilege was usually limited to the elites,<ref name="bardach202627"/> which in the later times took the form of the most powerful nobles ([[magnates]], [[prince]]s) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler.<ref name="bardach62-63"/> By the 12th or 13th century, the ''wiec'' institution likewise limited its participation to high ranking nobles and officials.<ref name="bardach63-64"/> The nationwide gatherings of ''wiec'' officials in 1306 and 1310 can be seen as precursors of the Polish parliament (the [[Sejm of the Kingdom of Poland|General Sejm]]).<ref name="bardach63-64"/>