Editing Vernier scale (section)

==Functioning==
[[File:VernierscaleHow a vernier scale works.gif|thumb|Vernier caliper with a vernier constant of 0.1 for clarity of operation. The standard for a caliper is usually a constant of '''0.02''']]
[[File:Vernier scale use 0.02 scale measurement is 19.44 mm.gif|thumb|Vernier caliper scale with the '''normal 0.02 vernier constant,''' showing measurement of object at 19.44{{nbsp}}mm to two decimal places]]

The use of the vernier scale is shown on a vernier caliper which measures the internal and the external diameters of an object.

The vernier scale is constructed so that it is spaced at a constant fraction of the fixed main scale. So for a vernier with a constant of 0.1, each mark on the vernier is spaced 9/10 of those on the main scale. If you put the two scales together with zero points aligned, the first mark on the vernier scale is 1/10 short of the first main scale mark, the second is 2/10 short, and so on up to the ninth mark, which is misaligned by 9/10. Only when a full ten marks are counted, is there alignment, because the tenth mark is 10/10—a whole main scale unit—short, and therefore aligns with the ninth mark on the main scale. (In simple words, each {{nobr|VSD {{=}} 0.9 MSD}}, so each decrement of length 0.1 adds 10&nbsp;times to make one MSD only in 9&nbsp;divisions of vernier scale division).

Now if you move the vernier by a small amount, say, 1/10 of its fixed main scale, the only pair of marks that come into alignment are the first pair, since these were the only ones originally misaligned by 1/10. If we move it 2/10, the second pair aligns, since these are the only ones originally misaligned by that amount. If we move it 5/10, the fifth pair aligns—and so on. For any movement, only one pair of marks aligns and that pair shows the value between the marks on the fixed scale.

===Least count or vernier constant===
The difference between the value of one main scale division and the value of one vernier scale division is known as the least count of the vernier, also known as the vernier constant. Let the measure of the smallest main-scale reading, that is the distance between two consecutive graduations (also called its ''pitch'') be ''S'', and the distance between two consecutive vernier scale graduations be ''V'', such that the length of (''n''&nbsp;−&nbsp;1) main-scale divisions is equal to ''n'' vernier-scale divisions. Then

: the length of (''n'' − 1) main-scale divisions = the length of ''n'' vernier-scale division, or
: (''n'' − 1)''S'' = ''nV'', or
: ''nS'' − ''S'' = ''nV''. ''Least count'' ''(S-V) = S/n''

===Vernier acuity===

{{Main article|Vernier acuity}}
Vernier scales work so well because most people are especially good at detecting which of the lines is aligned and misaligned, and that ability gets better with practice, in fact far exceeding the optical capability of the eye. This ability to detect alignment is called ''[[vernier acuity]]''.<ref>[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?Vernier+acuity Vernier acuity definition] at the Online Medical Dictionary.</ref> Historically, none of the alternative technologies exploited this or any other hyperacuity, giving the vernier scale an advantage over its competitors.<ref name="Kwan2011">{{cite journal |last=Kwan |first=A. |date=2011 |title=Vernier scales and other early devices for precise measurement |journal=American Journal of Physics |doi=10.1119/1.3533717 |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=368–373|bibcode=2011AmJPh..79..368K }}</ref>

===Zero error===
Zero error is defined as the condition where a measuring instrument registers a nonzero value at the zero position. In case of vernier calipers it occurs when a zero on main scale does not coincide with a zero on vernier scale. The zero error may be of two types: when the scale is towards numbers greater than zero, it is positive; otherwise it is negative. The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula
: ''actual reading = main scale + vernier scale − (zero error).''

Zero error may arise due to knocks or other damage which causes the 0.00&nbsp;mm marks to be misaligned when the jaws are perfectly closed or just touching each other.

[[File:5783metric-micrometer.jpg|thumb|Vernier micrometer reading 5.783{{nbsp}}±{{nbsp}}0.001&nbsp;mm, comprising 5.5{{nbsp}}mm on main screw lead scale, 0.28{{nbsp}}mm on screw rotation scale, and 0.003{{nbsp}}mm added from vernier.]]
[[File:Vernier scale zero error +0.10.gif|thumb|When the jaws are closed and if the reading is 0.10{{nbsp}}mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10{{nbsp}}mm. The method to use a vernier scale or caliper with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading = main scale + vernier scale − (zero error)' thus the actual reading is 19.00 + 0.54 − (0.10) = 19.44]]

''Positive zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed and the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading of 0.00{{nbsp}}mm. If the reading is 0.10{{nbsp}}mm, the zero error is referred to as +0.10&nbsp;mm.''

Negative zero error refers to the case when the jaws of the vernier caliper are just closed and the reading is a negative reading away from the actual reading of 0.00{{nbsp}}mm. If the reading is 0.08{{nbsp}}mm, the zero error is referred to as −0.08{{nbsp}}mm.

If positive, the error is subtracted from the mean reading the instrument reads. Thus if the instrument reads 4.39&nbsp;cm and the error is +0.05, the actual length will be 4.39 − 0.05 = 4.34.
If negative, the error is added to the mean reading the instrument reads. Thus if the instrument reads 4.39&nbsp;cm and as above the error is −0.05&nbsp;cm, the actual length will be 4.39 + 0.05 = 4.44.
(Considering that, the quantity is called zero correction which should always be added algebraically to the observed reading to the correct value.)

: ''Zero error (ZE) = ±n × least count (LC)''

===Direct and retrograde verniers===
''Direct verniers'' are the most common. The indicating scale is constructed so that when its zero point coincides with the start of the data scale, its [[graduation (instrument)|graduation]]s are at a slightly smaller spacing than those on the data scale and so none but the last graduation coincide with any graduations on the data scale. ''N'' graduations of the indicating scale cover ''N''&nbsp;−&nbsp;1 graduations of the data scale.

''Retrograde verniers'' are found on some devices, including surveying instruments.<ref>Davis, Raymond, Foote, Francis, Kelly, Joe, ''Surveying, Theory and Practice'', McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966, LC 64-66263.</ref> A retrograde vernier is similar to the direct vernier, except its graduations are at a slightly larger spacing than on the main scale. ''N'' graduations of the indicating scale cover ''N''&nbsp;+&nbsp;1 graduations of the data scale. The retrograde vernier also extends backwards along the data scale.

Direct and retrograde verniers are read in the same manner.