Editing Virginity (section)

==Culture==
===Concept===
[[File:Chastity (a virgin and a unicorn). Oil painting by a followe Wellcome V0017113.jpg|thumb|Virgin with a unicorn]]

The concept of virginity has significance only in a particular social, cultural or moral context. According to [[Hanne Blank]], "virginity reflects no known biological imperative and grants no demonstrable evolutionary advantage."<ref name="Blank" />

Medieval [[Bestiary|bestiaries]] stated that the only way to capture or tame a unicorn was by way of using a virgin as a lure, due to her implied purity.<ref name="Bestiary">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2014/11/fantastically-wrong-bestiary/|title=Fantastically Wrong: Unicorns Dig Virgin Women, and Other Lessons From Medieval Bestiaries|last=Simon|first=Matt|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|date=November 19, 2014|access-date=July 20, 2020|archive-date=July 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720191525/https://www.wired.com/2014/11/fantastically-wrong-bestiary/|url-status=live}}</ref> The topic is popular in Renaissance paintings.

Although virginity has historically been correlated with purity and worth, many feminist scholars believe that virginity itself is a myth. They argue that no standardized medical definition of virginity exists, that there is no scientifically verifiable proof of virginity loss, and that sexual intercourse results in no change in personality.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Purity Myth|last=Valenti|first=Jessica|publisher=Seal Press|year=2009}}</ref> [[Jessica Valenti]], feminist writer and author of ''[[The Purity Myth]]'', reasons that the concept of virginity is also dubious because of the many individual definitions of virginity loss, and that valuing virginity has placed a woman's morality "between her legs." She critiques the notion that sexual activity has any influence on morality or ethics.<ref name=":0" />

The urge of wanting one's spouse or partner to have never engaged in sexual activities is called a '''virgin complex'''. A person may also have a virgin complex directed towards oneself.<ref name="sohu">{{cite web|url=http://news.sohu.com/s2012/dianji-995/|title=Chinese entangled with female virgin complex|publisher=Sohu News|access-date=2018-10-23|archive-date=2018-06-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180611195910/http://news.sohu.com/s2012/dianji-995/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Yan-yan, W.A.N.G. "The World with Light and Shadow——Analysis of the Sex Consciousness of ZHANG Zi-ing's Sex Novels." (2007): 006.</ref><ref>Morrow, Don. "Dreams and Dreaming and The Father In WP Kinsella's Shoeless Joe." Aethlon 19.2 (2002): 43.</ref>

==={{anchor|Loss of virginity}}Definitions of virginity loss===
There are varying understandings as to which types of sexual activities result in loss of virginity. The traditional view is that virginity is only lost through vaginal penetration by the penis, consensual or non-consensual, and that acts of [[oral sex]], [[anal sex]], [[Non-penetrative sex#Manual sex|manual sex]] or other forms of [[non-penetrative sex]] do not result in loss of virginity. A person who engages in such acts without having engaged in vaginal intercourse is often regarded among heterosexuals and researchers as "technically a virgin".<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Intimate"/><ref name="Plummer">{{cite book | author = Ken Plummer | title = Modern Homosexualities: Fragments of Lesbian and Gay Experiences | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2002 | pages = 187–191 | access-date = August 24, 2013 | isbn = 978-1134922420 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OSO3q4XEfz4C&pg=PA189 | quote = The social construction of 'sex' as vaginal intercourse affects how other forms of sexual activity are evaluated as sexually satisfying or arousing; in some cases whether an activity is seen as a sexual act at all. For example, unless a woman has been penetrated by a man's penis she is still technically a virgin even if she has had lots of sexual experience. | archive-date = March 18, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150318215831/http://books.google.com/books?id=OSO3q4XEfz4C&pg=PA189 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="www.usatoday.com">{{cite news|first=Sharon|last=Jayson|title='Technical virginity' becomes part of teens' equation|newspaper=[[USA Today]]|date=2005-10-19|access-date=2009-08-07|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-10-19-teens-technical-virginity_x.htm|archive-date=2012-10-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016061754/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-10-19-teens-technical-virginity_x.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> By contrast, gay or [[lesbian]] individuals often describe such acts as resulting in loss of virginity.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Blank"/> Some [[Gay men|gay males]] regard penile-anal penetration as resulting in loss of virginity, but not [[fellatio]], [[handjob]]s or other types of non-penetrative sex,<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Virgin"/> while lesbians may regard [[cunnilingus]] or [[Fingering (sexual act)|fingering]] as virginity loss.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Blank"/><ref name="Bouris">{{Cite book|title=The First Time: What Parents and Teenage Girls Should Know about "Losing Your Virginity"|author=Karen Bouris|year=1995|publisher=[[Red Wheel/Weiser/Conari|Conari Press]]|pages=133–134|isbn=978-0-943233-93-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Id5MVeH_3BoC&q=virginity+loss+among+lesbians&pg=PA133|access-date=2013-12-15|archive-date=2021-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825202401/https://books.google.com/books?id=Id5MVeH_3BoC&q=virginity+loss+among+lesbians&pg=PA133|url-status=live}}</ref> Some lesbians who debate the traditional definition consider whether or not non-penile forms of vaginal penetration constitute virginity loss,<ref name="Bouris"/> while other gay men and lesbians assert that the term ''virginity'' is meaningless to them because of the prevalence of the traditional definition.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Virgin"/>

Whether a person can lose their virginity through [[rape]] is also subject to debate, with the belief that virginity can only be lost through consensual sex being prevalent in some studies.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="consent"/> In a study by researcher and author Laura M. Carpenter, many men and women discussed how they felt virginity could not be taken through rape. They described losing their virginities in one of three ways: "as a gift, stigma or part of the process."<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/00224490109552080 | volume=38 | issue=2 | title=The ambiguity of "having sex": The subjective experience of virginity loss in the united states | journal=Journal of Sex Research | pages=127–139| year=2001 | last1=Carpenter | first1=Laura M. | s2cid=143906218 }}</ref>

Carpenter states that despite perceptions of what determines virginity loss being as varied among gay men and lesbians as they are among heterosexuals, and in some cases more varied among the former, that the matter has been described to her as people viewing sexual acts relating to virginity loss as "acts that correspond to your sexual orientation," which suggests the following: "So if you're a gay male, you're supposed to have anal sex because that's what gay men do. And if you're a gay woman, then you're supposed to have oral sex, because that's what gay women do. And so those become, like markers, for when virginity is lost."<ref name="Carpenter"/>

The concept of "technical virginity" or [[sexual abstinence]] through oral sex is popular among teenagers.<ref name=www.usatoday.com/><ref name="CDC, oral sex">{{cite web|title=Oral Sex and HIV Risk|date=June 2009|access-date=March 2, 2017|publisher=[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC)|url=https://www.scribd.com/document/27272511/CDC-s-HIV-Infection-through-Oral-Sex-Fact-Sheet}}</ref> For example, oral sex is common among adolescent girls who fellate their boyfriends not only to preserve their virginity, but also to create and maintain intimacy or to avoid pregnancy.<ref name="uc">{{cite journal|author1=Sonya S. Brady|author2=Bonnie L. Halpern-Felsher|name-list-style=amp|title=Adolescents' Reported Consequences of Having Oral Sex Versus Vaginal Sex|journal=Pediatrics|year=2007|volume=119|issue=2|pages=229–236|doi=10.1542/peds.2006-1727|pmid=17272611|url=http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/119/2/229.full.pdf|citeseerx=10.1.1.321.9520|s2cid=17998160|access-date=2017-11-01|archive-date=2020-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420213133/https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/119/2/229|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 1999 study published in ''[[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]]'' (the ''Journal of the American Medical Association''), the definition of "sex" was examined based on a 1991 random sample of 599 college students from 29 US states; it found that 60% said oral-genital contact (like fellatio, cunnilingus) did not constitute having sex.<!--NOTE: First news source says 599 college students and 60%; second news source says nearly 600 college students and 59%.--><ref name="McAnulty"/><ref name=www.usatoday.com/><ref name="Cox">{{cite news|first=Lauren|last=Cox|title=Study: Adults Can't Agree What 'Sex' Means|publisher=[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC.com]]|date=March 8, 2010|access-date=September 5, 2012|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Sex/adults-agree-sex-means-study-shows/story?id=10030354#.UEfroqM4onY|archive-date=December 17, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111217110617/http://abcnews.go.com/Health/Sex/adults-agree-sex-means-study-shows/story?id=10030354#.UEfroqM4onY|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kauth">{{cite book|title=True Nature: A Theory of Sexual Attraction|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]]|year=2000|page=74|access-date=August 30, 2012|isbn=978-0306463907|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PzDKr-qCdTAC&q=Stephanie+Sanders+students+sex&pg=PA74|author=Michael R Kauth}}</ref> Stephanie Sanders of the [[Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction|Kinsey Institute]], co-author of the study, stated, "That's the 'technical virginity' thing that's going on." She and other researchers titled their findings "Would You Say You 'Had Sex' If ...?"<ref name=www.usatoday.com/> By contrast, in a study released in 2008 by the [[Guttmacher Institute]], author of the findings Laura Lindberg stated that there "is a widespread belief that teens engage in nonvaginal forms of sex, especially oral sex, as a way to be sexually active while still claiming that technically, they are virgins", but that her study drew the conclusion that "research shows that this supposed substitution of oral sex for vaginal sex is largely a myth".<ref name="oral sex for intercourse">{{cite press release|title=Perception That Teens Frequently Substitute Oral Sex For Intercourse A Myth|date=2008-05-20|url=http://www.guttmacher.org/media/nr/2008/05/20/index.html|access-date=March 12, 2012|archive-date=2012-02-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120211081907/http://www.guttmacher.org/media/nr/2008/05/20/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

A 2003 study published in the ''[[Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality]]'' focusing on definitions of "having sex" and noting studies concerning university students from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia reported that "[w]hile the vast majority of respondents (more than 97%) in these three studies included penile-vaginal intercourse in their definition of sex, fewer (between 70% and 90%) respondents considered penile-anal intercourse to constitute having sex" and that "oral-genital behaviours were defined as sex by between 32% and 58% of respondents".<ref name="Randall">{{cite journal|last1=Randall|first1=H. E.|last2=Byers|first2=S. E.|title=What is sex? Students' definitions of having sex, sexual partner, and unfaithful sexual behaviour|journal=[[The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality]]|volume=12|pages=87–96|year=2003|url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-114049357/what-is-sex-students-definitions-of-having-sex|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015002419/http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-114049357/what-is-sex-students-definitions-of-having-sex|url-status=dead|archive-date=October 15, 2013|quote=Recently, researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia have investigated university students' definitions of having sex. These studies found that students differ in their opinions of what sexual behaviours constitute having sex (Pitts & Rahman, 2001; Richters & Song, 1999; Sanders & Reinisch, 1999). While the vast majority of respondents (more than 97%) in these three studies included penile-vaginal intercourse in their definition of sex, fewer (between 70% and 90%) respondents considered penile-anal intercourse to constitute having sex. Oral-genital behaviours were defined as sex by between 32% and 58% of respondents.}}</ref> A different study by the Kinsey Institute sampled 484 people, ranging in ages 18–96. "Nearly 95 percent of people in the study agreed that penile-vaginal intercourse meant 'had sex.' But the numbers changed as the questions got more specific." 11 percent of respondents based "had sex" on whether the man had achieved an [[orgasm]], concluding that absence of an orgasm does not constitute "having had" sex. "About 80 percent of respondents said penile-anal intercourse meant 'had sex.' About 70 percent of people believed oral sex was sex."<ref name="Cox"/>

[[Virginity pledge]]s (or abstinence pledges) made by heterosexual teenagers and young adults may also include the practice of "technical virginity". In a peer-reviewed study by sociologists [[Peter Bearman]] and Hannah Brueckner, which looked at virginity pledgers five years after their pledge, they found that the pledgers have similar proportions of [[sexually transmitted disease]]s (STDs) and at least as high proportions of anal and oral sex as those who have not made a virginity pledge, and deduced that there was substitution of oral and anal sex for vaginal sex among the pledgers. However, the data for anal sex without vaginal sex reported by males did not reflect this directly.<ref name="webmdVPDCSR">{{cite web|url=http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/news/20050322/virginity-pledges-dont-cut-std-rates|title=Virginity Pledges Don't Cut STD Rates|work=WebMD.com|access-date=2013-12-26|archive-date=2013-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215141525/http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/news/20050322/virginity-pledges-dont-cut-std-rates|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="promise">{{cite journal|last2=Brueckner|first2=Hannah|date=April 2005|title=After the promise: The STD consequences of adolescent virginity pledges|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=36|issue=4|pages=271–278|doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.01.005|pmid=15780782|last1=Bearman|first1=Peter|citeseerx=10.1.1.362.6308|s2cid=10150529 }}</ref>

=== Early loss of virginity ===

Early loss of virginity has been shown to be linked to factors such as level of education, independence, biological factors like age and gender, and social factors such as parental supervision or religious affiliation, with the most common being sociodemographic variables.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Lammers|first1=Cristina|last2=Ireland|first2=Marjorie|last3=Resnick|first3=Michael|last4=Blum|first4=Robert|date=2000-01-01|title=Influences on adolescents' decision to postpone onset of sexual intercourse: a survival analysis of virginity among youths aged 13 to 18 years|journal=Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=26|issue=1|pages=42–48|doi=10.1016/S1054-139X(99)00041-5|pmid=10638717}}</ref> Along with this, sexual abuse has also been shown to have a link to later [[risky sexual behavior]]s and a younger age of voluntary sexual intercourse. Sexual initiation at an earlier age has been associated with reduced frequency of condom use, less satisfaction and more frequency of non-autonomous reasons for that first sexual encounter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Osorio|first1=Alfonso|last2=Lopez-del Burgo|first2=Cristina|last3=Carlos|first3=Silvia|last4=de Irala|first4=Jokin|date=2017|title=The Sooner, the Worse? Association between Earlier Age of Sexual Initiation and Worse Adolescent Health and Well-being Outcomes|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=en|volume=8|pages=1298|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01298|pmid=28798715|pmc=5529390|issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free}}</ref> Adverse effects for losing virginity at an early age include lower chance of economic stability, lower level of education, social isolation, marital disruption and greater medical consequences. These medical consequences consist of an increase in STDs, cervical cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, fertility and unwanted pregnancies.<ref name=":02" />

===Female virginity===

====Cultural value====

The first act of sexual intercourse by a female is commonly considered within many cultures to be an important personal milestone. Its significance is reflected in expressions such as "saving oneself", "losing one's virginity," "taking someone's virginity" and sometimes as "deflowering". The occasion is at times seen as the end of innocence, integrity, or purity, and the [[sexualization]] of the individual.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Laura M.|date=May 2001|title=The Ambiguity of "Having Sex": The Subjective Experience of Virginity Loss in the United States|journal=The Journal of Sex Research|volume=38|issue=2|pages=127–139|doi=10.1080/00224490109552080|s2cid=143906218}}</ref>

Traditionally, there was a cultural expectation that a female would not engage in [[premarital sex]] and would come to her wedding a virgin and that she would "give up" her virginity to her new husband in the act of [[consummation]] of the marriage. Feminine sexual practices have revolved around the idea of females waiting to have sex until they are married.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Speaking of Sexuality: Interdisciplinary Readings Third Edition|last1=Moore|first1=Newlyn B.|last2=Davidson|first2=J. Kenneth Sr.|last3=Fisher|first3=Terri D.|publisher=Oxford University Press Inc.|year=2010|isbn=9780195389494|location=New York, New York|page=256}}</ref>

Some females who have been previously sexually active (or their hymen has been otherwise damaged) may undergo a surgical procedure, called [[hymenorrhaphy]] or hymenoplasty, to repair or replace her hymen, and cause vaginal bleeding on the next intercourse as proof of virginity ([[#Proof of virginity|see below]]).<ref name=Regain>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-muslimwomen-europe-virginity-idUSL2532025120070430?pageNumber=2&sp=true|title=Muslim women in France regain virginity in clinics|work=[[Reuters]]|date=April 30, 2007|access-date=July 3, 2017|archive-date=October 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016142640/http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/04/30/us-muslimwomen-europe-virginity-idUSL2532025120070430?pageNumber=2&sp=true|url-status=live}}</ref> In some cultures, an unmarried female who is found not to be a virgin, whether by choice or as a result of a [[rape]], can be subject to shame, ostracism or even an [[honor killing]]. In those cultures, female virginity is closely interwoven with personal or even family honor, especially those known as [[Shame society|shame societies]], in which the loss of virginity before marriage is a matter of deep shame.<ref name="Bennett"/> In some parts of Africa, the myth that [[virgin cleansing myth|sex with a virgin can cure]] [[HIV/AIDS]] continues to prevail, leading to girls and women being raped.<ref>"[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1362134/South-African-men-rape-babies-as-cure-for-Aids.html South African men rape babies as 'cure' for Aids] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008021044/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/1362134/South-African-men-rape-babies-as-cure-for-Aids.html |date=2020-10-08 }}". ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''. November 11, 2001</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Staging sex myths to save Zimbabwe's girls|last=Vickers|first=Steve|year=2006|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6076758.stm|access-date=2013-12-15|df=mdy-all|archive-date=2020-12-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204020657/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6076758.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> In other societies, such as many modern-day Western cultures, lack of [[sexual abstinence]] before marriage is not as socially stigmatized as it may be in the formerly mentioned cultures.<ref name=":2" /> Conversely, Western societies see premarital abstinence as prude or outdated, while encouraging and sometimes even pressuring virgin individuals into sexual encounters.<ref name="kaiser" />

Virginity is regarded as a valuable commodity in some cultures. In the past, within most societies a woman's options for marriage were largely dependent upon her status as a virgin. Those women who were not virgins experienced a dramatic decrease in opportunities for a socially advantageous marriage, and in some instances the premarital loss of virginity eliminated their chances of marriage entirely.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schlegel|first=Alice|date=November 1991|title=Status, Property, and the Value on Virginity|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=18|issue=4|pages=719–734|doi=10.1525/ae.1991.18.4.02a00050}}</ref> Modern [[virginity auction]]s, like that of [[Natalie Dylan]], are discussed in the 2013 documentary ''[[How to Lose Your Virginity]].''

The Bible required a man who had sex with a virgin to pay her [[bride price]] to her father and marry the girl.<ref>{{bibleverse||Exodus|22:16–17|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Deuteronomy|22:28–29|NIV}}. See also [[Shotgun wedding]].</ref> In some countries, until the late 20th century, a woman could [[Seduction (tort)|sue a man]] who had taken her virginity but did not marry her. In some languages, the compensation for these damages are called "[[wreath money]]".<ref>Brockhaus 2004, ''Kranzgeld''</ref>

===="Proof of virginity"====
{{anchor|proof of virginity}}
{{main|Virginity test}}
[[File:Virgtests.jpg|thumb|[[World Health Organization]] poster against virginity testing]]
Despite common cultural beliefs, links between hymen state and vaginal penetration are not clear-cut. Inserting objects (including penises) into the vagina may or may not affect the [[hymen]].<ref name="couldnt"/> The state of a hymen cannot be used to [[virginity test|prove or disprove virginity]]. Penile penetration does not lead to predictable changes to female genital organs; after puberty, hymens are highly elastic and can stretch during penetration without trace of injury. Females with a confirmed history of sexual abuse involving genital penetration may have normal hymens. Young females who say they have had consensual sex mostly show no identifiable changes in the hymen. Hymens rarely [[imperforate hymen|completely cover the vagina]], hymens naturally have irregularities in width, and hymens can heal spontaneously without scarring. Visible breaks in the hymen, including complete hymenal clefts, are also common in girls and women who have never been sexually active.<ref name="couldnt">{{cite journal |last1=Mishori |first1=R |last2=Ferdowsian |first2=H |last3=Naimer |first3=K |last4=Volpellier |first4=M |last5=McHale |first5=T |title=The little tissue that couldn't - dispelling myths about the Hymen's role in determining sexual history and assault. |journal=Reproductive Health |date=3 June 2019 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=74 |doi=10.1186/s12978-019-0731-8 |doi-access=free |pmid=31159818 |pmc=6547601 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodyear-Smith |first1=FA |last2=Laidlaw |first2=TM |title=Can tampon use cause hymen changes in girls who have not had sexual intercourse? A review of the literature. |journal=Forensic Science International |date=8 June 1998 |volume=94 |issue=1–2 |pages=147–53 |doi=10.1016/s0379-0738(98)00053-x |pmid=9670493 }}</ref>

Medical professionals therefore recommend against describing hymens as "intact" or "broken".<ref name="couldnt"/>

Some cultures require proof of a bride's virginity before her marriage. This has traditionally been tested by inspection for an "intact" [[hymen]],<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.studenthealth.co.uk/advice/advice.asp?adviceID=148|title=Torn hymen (virgin or not?)|publisher=Studenthealth.co.uk|date=2005-12-12|access-date=2014-04-30|df=mdy-all|archive-date=2015-05-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504135518/http://www.studenthealth.co.uk/advice/advice.asp?adviceID=148|url-status=live}}</ref> or by a "proof of blood", which refers to vaginal bleeding wrongly believed to be caused by the tearing of the hymen after the first sanctioned sexual contact.<ref name="Hymen">{{cite book|last1=Perlman|first1=Sally E.|last2=Nakajyma|first2=Steven T.|last3=Hertweck|first3=S. Paige|title=Clinical protocols in pediatric and adolescent gynecology |year=2004|publisher=Parthenon|page=131|isbn=978-1-84214-199-1}}</ref><ref name="Souter">{{Cite book|title=The London medical and physical journal, Volume 51|publisher=[[Harvard University]]|page=211|date=May 15, 2007|access-date=October 8, 2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj4CAAAAYAAJ&q=the+nuptial+sheets+blood+virginity&pg=PA211|archive-date=August 23, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210823222306/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pj4CAAAAYAAJ&q=the+nuptial+sheets+blood+virginity&pg=PA211|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kelly">{{cite book|author=Kathleen Coyne Kelly|title=Performing virginity and testing chastity in the Middle Ages. Volume 2 of Routledge research in medieval studies|publisher=[[Psychology Press]]|year=2000|access-date=October 8, 2011|page=129|isbn=978-0-415-22181-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HdF6ac5yldMC&q=the+nuptial+sheets+blood+virginity&pg=PA129}}</ref><ref name=paediatrician/> Coerced medical virginity tests are practiced in many regions of the world, but are today condemned as a form of abuse of women. According to the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO): "[[Sexual violence]] encompasses a wide range of acts including (...) violent acts against the sexual integrity of women, including female genital mutilation and ''obligatory inspections for virginity''".<ref>World Health Organization. [https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf World report on violence and health.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305201126/https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/en/summary_en.pdf |date=2019-03-05 }} Geneva: World Health Organization, 2002. pp. 17.</ref>

Although it is not actually possible to determine virginity by inspection,<ref name="couldnt"/><ref name=paediatrician/> some doctors feel socially pressured into performing "[[virginity testing]]" inspections and providing "certificates of virginity". In some jurisdictions, this is illegal, and physicians are encouraged to instead provide education, guidance, social support, and where needed, physical protection. Such virginity-testing bans have been controversial; while there is a consensus that virginity cannot be scientifically and medically certified, some physicians argue that certificates, while intrinsically dishonest, protect vulnerable women from potentially life-threatening danger.<ref name=paediatrician/>

Some women undergo [[hymenorrhaphy]] (or hymenoplasty) to reshape their hymens with the intent of causing vaginal bleeding on the next intercourse.<ref name="Regain"/><ref name=paediatrician>{{Cite journal |last1=Moussaoui |first1=Dehlia |last2=Abdulcadir |first2=Jasmine |last3=Yaron |first3=Michal |date=March 2022 |title=Hymen and virginity: What every paediatrician should know |journal=Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health |volume=58 |issue=3 |pages=382–387 |doi=10.1111/jpc.15887 |issn=1034-4810 |pmc=9306936 |pmid=35000235}}</ref> Hymenorraphy is based on the false belief that all women bleed when first having vaginal intercourse; in fact, only about half bleed.<ref name=paediatrician/> In some cultures, the nuptial blood-spotted bed sheet would be displayed as proof of both consummation of marriage and that the bride had been a virgin.<ref name="Souter"/><ref name="Kelly"/> Hymens have few blood vessels and may not bleed significantly even when torn, and vaginal walls may bleed significantly when torn. Blood on the sheets on first intercourse is more likely to be due to lacerations to the vaginal wall caused by inadequate [[vaginal lubrication]] or forced penetration.<ref name="couldnt"/> A small study found that of 19 women who underwent hymenorrhaphy, 17 did not have bleeding at the next intercourse.<ref name=paediatrician/>

In Iran, Grand Ayatollah [[Sadeq Rohani|Sayyid Sadeq Rohani]] has issued a [[fatwa]] which states that a women, after undergoing hymenorrhaphy, is a virgin, and a man cannot divorce her on grounds that she was not.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/may/12/virgin-hymen-repair-iran |title=Recreating virginity in Iran |last=Afary |first=Janet |date=12 May 2009 |work=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=26 March 2017}}</ref> Hymenorraphy is considered a form of cosmetic surgery, and is not generally accepted, taught, or regulated by the medical profession.<ref name=paediatrician/>

There is a common belief that some women are born without a hymen,<ref name=emans>Emans, S. Jean. "Physical Examination of the Child and Adolescent" (2000) in ''Evaluation of the Sexually Abused Child: A Medical Textbook and Photographic Atlas'', Second edition, Oxford University Press. 61–65</ref><ref name="McCann">McCann, J; Rosas, A. and Boos, S. (2003) "Child and adolescent sexual assaults (childhood sexual abuse)" in Payne-James, Jason; Busuttil, Anthony and Smock, William (eds). Forensic Medicine: Clinical and Pathological Aspects, Greenwich Medical Media: London, a)p.453, b)p.455 c)p.460.</ref> but some doubt has been cast on this by a recent study.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/12/health/12klas.html?_r=1 The Marks of Childhood or the Marks of Abuse?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701094010/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/12/health/12klas.html?_r=1 |date=2017-07-01 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]''</ref> It is likely that almost all women are born with a hymen, but most will not experience a measurable change during first experience of vaginal intercourse. Some medical procedures occasionally may require a woman's hymen to be opened ([[hymenotomy]]).

===Male virginity===
Historically, and in modern times, female virginity has been regarded as more significant than male virginity; the perception that sexual prowess is fundamental to masculinity has lowered the expectation of male virginity without lowering social status.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Bennett"/><ref name="Asencio">{{Cite book|author=Marysol Asencio|title=Sex and sexuality among New York's Puerto Rican youth|publisher=[[Lynne Rienner Publishers]]|year=2002|access-date=October 9, 2011|pages=57–64 |isbn=978-1-58826-073-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8AlJw95JhewC&pg=PA57}}</ref> For example, in [[Mataram (city)|Mataram]], [[Indonesia]], where around 80% of the population are Muslims, unmarried women who are not virgins may be subject to name-calling, [[shunning]], or family shame, while unmarried men who have lost their virginities are not, though premarital sex is forbidden in the [[Quran]] with regard to both men and women.<!-- NOTE: This is reliably sourced. If you have any objections to this material, make them known on the article's talk page, but keep in mind that your argument should be based on reliable sources and/or other Wikipedia policies and guidelines, not solely your opinion.--><ref name="Bennett"/> Among various countries or cultures, males are expected or encouraged to want to engage in sexual activity, and to be more sexually experienced.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Asencio"/><ref name="Bozon">{{cite journal|last=Bozon|first=Michael|year=2003|title=At what age do women and men have their first sexual intercourse? World comparisons and recent trends|url=https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/247/english_391.en.pdf|journal=Population and Societies |volume=391|pages=1–4|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304091955/https://www.ined.fr/fichier/s_rubrique/247/english_391.en.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Colón">{{Cite book|title=Singled Out: Why Celibacy Must Be Reinvented in Today's Church|publisher=[[Baker Publishing Group|Brazos Press]]|year=2009|access-date=October 9, 2011|page=30|isbn=978-1-58743-237-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MdD-cJwEX8C&pg=PA30|author1=Christine A. Colón|author2=Bonnie E. Field|archive-date=January 2, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160102170406/https://books.google.com/books?id=8MdD-cJwEX8C&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}</ref> Not following these standards often leads to teasing and other such ridicule from their male peers.<ref name="Carpenter"/><ref name="Asencio"/><ref name="Leigh">{{cite magazine|first=Jennifer|last=A. Leigh|title=Male Virginity Myths|magazine=[[Psychology Today]]|date=June 27, 2009|access-date=October 9, 2011|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/guide-teen-girls/200906/male-virginity-myths}}</ref> A 2003 study by the [[Guttmacher Institute]] showed that in the countries surveyed, most men have experienced sexual intercourse by their 20th birthdays.<ref name=GImen>Guttmacher Institute (2003) ''In Their Own Right: Addressing the Sexual and Reproductive Health Needs of Men Worldwide.'' pages 19–21.</ref>

Male sexuality is seen as something that is innate and competitive and displays a different set of cultural values and stigmas from female sexuality and virginity. In one study, scholars Wenger and Berger found that male virginity is understood to be real by society, but it has been ignored by sociological studies.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Berger|first1=D.|last2=Wenger|first2=M.|year=1973|title=The Ideology of Virginity|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|volume=35|issue=4|pages=666–676|doi=10.2307/350880|jstor=350880}}</ref> Within British and American culture in particular, male virginity has been made an object of embarrassment and ridicule in films such as ''[[Summer of '42]]'', ''[[American Pie (film)|American Pie]]'', ''[[The Inbetweeners Movie]]'' and ''[[The 40-Year-Old Virgin]]'', with the male virgin typically being presented as socially inept.<ref name="Carpenter" /><ref name="Leigh" /> Such attitudes have resulted in some men keeping their status as a virgin a secret.<ref>Abu-Odeh, Lama. "Crimes of honor and the construction of gender in Arab societies." Comparative Law Review 2.1 (2011).</ref>

===Prevalence of virginity===
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright"
|+ Prevalence of sexually experienced 15-year-olds based on self-reports<ref name=AP&AM>{{cite journal|first1=Emmanuelle|last1=Godeau|first2=Saoirse|last2=Nic Gabhainn|first3=Ce´line|last3=Vignes|first4=Jim|last4=Ross|first5=Will|last5=Boyce|first6=Joanna|last6=Todd|title=Contraceptive Use by 15-Year-Old Students at Their Last Sexual Intercourse Results From 24 Countries|journal=[[Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine]]|date=January 2008|volume=162|issue=1|pages=66–73|doi=10.1001/archpediatrics.2007.8|pmid=18180415|doi-access=free|hdl=10379/11683|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
|-
!Country
!Boys (%)
!Girls (%)
|-
|[[Austria]] || 21.7 || 17.9
|-
|[[Canada]] || 24.1 || 23.9
|-
|[[Croatia]] || 21.9 || 8.2
|-
|[[England]] || 34.9 || 39.9
|-
|[[Estonia]] || 18.8 || 14.1
|-
|[[Finland]] || 23.1 || 32.7
|-
|[[Flanders]] || 24.6 || 23
|-
|[[France]] || 25.1 || 17.7
|-
|[[Greece]] || 32.5 || 9.5
|-
|[[Hungary]] || 25 || 16.3
|-
|[[Israel]] || 31 || 8.2
|-
|[[Latvia]] || 19.2 || 12.4
|-
|[[Lithuania]] || 24.4 || 9.2
|-
|[[Macedonia (country)|Macedonia]] || 34.2 || 2.7
|-
|[[Netherlands]] || 23.3 || 20.5
|-
|[[Poland]] || 20.5 || 9.3
|-
|[[Portugal]] || 29.2 || 19.1
|-
|[[Scotland]] || 32.1 || 34.1
|-
|[[Slovenia]] || 28.2 || 20.1
|-
|[[Spain]] || 17.2 || 13.9
|-
|[[Sweden]] || 24.6 || 29.9
|-
|[[Switzerland]] || 24.1 || 20.3
|-
|[[Ukraine]] || 47.1 || 24
|-
|[[Wales]] || 27.3 || 38.5
|}

The prevalence of virginity varies from culture to culture. In cultures which place importance on a female's virginity at marriage, the age at which virginity is lost is in effect determined by the age at which marriages would normally take place in those cultures, as well as the minimum [[Marriageable age|marriage age]] set by the laws of the country where the marriage takes place.<ref name="Bozon"/>

In a cross-cultural study, ''At what age do women and men have their first sexual intercourse?'' (2003), Michael Bozon of the French [[Institut national d'études démographiques]] found that contemporary cultures fall into three broad categories.<ref name="Bozon"/> In the first group, the data indicated families [[Arranged marriage|arranging marriage]] for daughters as close to puberty as possible with significantly older men. Age of men at sexual initiation in these societies is at later ages than that of women, but is often extra-marital. This group included [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (the study listed Mali, Senegal and Ethiopia). The study considered the [[Indian subcontinent]] to also fall into this group, although data was only available from Nepal.<ref name="Bozon"/>

In the second group, the data indicated families encouraged daughters to delay marriage, and to abstain from sexual activity before that time. However, sons are encouraged to gain experience with older women or prostitutes before marriage. Age of men at sexual initiation in these societies is at lower ages than that of women. This group includes Latin cultures, both from [[southern Europe]] (Portugal, Greece and Romania are noted) and from [[Latin America]] (Brazil, Chile, and the Dominican Republic). The study considered many Asian societies to also fall into this group, although matching data was only available from Thailand.<ref name="Bozon"/>

In the third group, age of men and women at sexual initiation was more closely matched. There were two sub-groups, however. In non-Latin, Catholic countries (Poland and Lithuania are mentioned), age at sexual initiation was higher, suggesting later marriage and reciprocal valuing of male and female virginity. The same pattern of late marriage and reciprocal valuing of virginity was reflected in Singapore and Sri Lanka. The study considered China and Vietnam to also fall into this group, although data were not available.<ref name="Bozon"/>

Finally, in northern and eastern European countries, age at sexual initiation was lower, with both men and women involved in sexual activity before any union formation. The study listed Switzerland, Germany and the Czech Republic as members of this group.<ref name="Bozon"/>

According to a 2001 [[UNICEF]] survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex.<ref name=oecd >UNICEF. (2001). {{cite web |url= http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |title= A League Table of Teenage Births in Rich Nations |access-date= 2013-12-15 |archive-date= 2019-07-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190702164616/https://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/repcard3e.pdf |url-status= live }}&nbsp;{{small|(888&nbsp;KB)}}. Retrieved July 7, 2006.</ref> A 2002 international survey sought to study the [[sexual behavior of teenagers]]. 33,943 students aged 15, from 24 countries, completed a self-administered, anonymous, classroom survey, consisting of a standard questionnaire, developed by the HBSC (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children) international research network. The survey revealed that the majority of the students were still virgins (they had no experience of sexual intercourse), and, among those who were sexually active, the majority (82%) used contraception.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Godeau E, Nic Gabhainn S, Vignes C, Ross J, Boyce W, Todd J|title=Contraceptive use by 15-year-old students at their last sexual intercourse: results from 24 countries|journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med|volume=162|issue=1|pages=66–73|date=January 2008|pmid=18180415|doi=10.1001/archpediatrics.2007.8|doi-access=free|hdl=10379/11683|hdl-access=free}}</ref> In a 2005 [[Kaiser Family Foundation]] study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn't really want to do".<ref name=kaiser>{{cite web |url= http://enrichmentjournal.ag.org/200604/200604_4USTeenSexActi.pdf |title= U.S.Teen Sexual Activity |access-date= 2013-12-15 |archive-date= 2016-03-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002436/http://enrichmentjournal.ag.org/200604/200604_4USTeenSexActi.pdf |url-status= live }}&nbsp;{{small|(147&nbsp;KB)}} Kaiser Family Foundation, January 2005. Retrieved 23 Jan 2007</ref> Several polls have indicated [[peer pressure]] as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex.<ref name="pollingdata">The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy. (1997). [http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/national-data/what-the-polling-data-tell-us.aspx What the Polling Data Tell Us: A Summary of Past Surveys on Teen Pregnancy]. Retrieved July 13, 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131215145723/http://www.thenationalcampaign.org/national-data/what-the-polling-data-tell-us.aspx |date=December 15, 2013}}</ref><ref name=psychologytoday>{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200305/peer-pressure-and-teen-sex|title=Peer Pressure and Teen Sex|last=Allen|first=Colin|date=2003-05-22|work=Psychology Today|access-date=2006-07-14|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Some studies suggest that people commence sexual activity at an earlier age than previous generations.<ref name="Mackay">Judith Mackay, ''The Penguin Atlas of Human Sexual Behavior'', Myriad Editions, published by Penguin, 2000; {{ISBN|978-0-14-051479-7}} [http://www.myriadeditions.com/books/the-penguin-atlas-of-human-sexual-behavior/ Human Sexual Behavior Atlas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926122618/http://www.myriadeditions.com/books/the-penguin-atlas-of-human-sexual-behavior/ |date=2015-09-26 }}</ref><ref name="durexnetwork.org">{{Cite web|url=http://www.durexnetwork.org/en-GB/research/faceofglobalsex/Pages/Home.aspx|title=Home.aspx|date=September 10, 2009|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090910183850/http://www.durexnetwork.org/en-GB/research/faceofglobalsex/Pages/Home.aspx|archive-date=2009-09-10}}</ref> The 2005 Durex Global sex survey found that people worldwide are having sex for the first time at an average age of 17.3, ranging from 15.6 in Iceland to 19.8 in India<ref name=durexnetwork.org/> (though evidence has shown that the average age is not a good indicator of sexual initiation, and that percentages of sexually initiated youth at each age are preferred).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Irala|first1=J.|last2=Osorio|first2=A.|last3=Carlos|first3=S.|last4=Ruiz-Canela|first4=M.|last5=López-del Burgo|first5=C.|title=Mean age of first sex. Do they know what we mean?|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|date=2011|volume=40|issue=5|pages=853–855|doi=10.1007/s10508-011-9779-4|pmid=21618046 |pmc=3180636 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=de Irala|first1=J.|last2=Osorio|first2=A.|last3=Ruiz-Canela|first3=M.|last4=Carlos|first4=S.|last5=López-del Burgo|first5=C.|title=Informing Youth about the Age of Sexual Initiation Using Means or Percentages|journal=Health Communication|date=2014|volume=29|issue=6|pages=629–633|doi=10.1080/10410236.2013.775931|pmid=24131281|s2cid=16216848|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/ai5fsSBdXX2pEzH63iMy/full|access-date=2014-05-26|archive-date=2015-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904092336/http://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/ai5fsSBdXX2pEzH63iMy/full|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A 2008 survey of [[United Kingdom|UK]] teenagers between the ages of 14 and 17 (conducted by [[YouGov]] for [[Channel 4]]), showed that only 6% of these teenagers intended to wait until marriage before having sex.<ref name="sex stats">{{cite web|url=http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|title=Teen Sex Survey|access-date=2008-09-11|publisher=Channel 4|year=2008|archive-date=2008-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912225248/http://sexperienceuk.channel4.com/teen-sex-survey|url-status=live}}</ref> According to a 2011 CDC study, in the 15-to-19-year-old age group 43 percent of males and 48 percent of females in the United States reported never having an opposite-sex partner.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bakalar|first=Nicholas|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/26/health/research/26statistics.html|title=For a Sex Survey, A Little Privacy Goes a Long Way|work=The New York Times|date=2011-04-25|access-date=2017-05-06|df=mdy-all|archive-date=2017-07-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701114446/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/26/health/research/26statistics.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The rates of [[teenage pregnancy]] vary and range from 143 per 1000 girls in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1000 in South Korea. The rate for the United States is 52.1 per 1000, the highest in the developed world – and about four times the European Union average.<ref name="oecd" /><ref name="ncbi">{{cite journal|author=Treffers PE|title=[Teenage pregnancy, a worldwide problem]|language=nl|journal=Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd|volume=147|issue=47|pages=2320–5|date=November 2003 |pmid=14669537}}</ref> The teenage pregnancy rates between countries must take into account the level of general [[sex education]] available and access to contraceptive options. Many Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce such pregnancies and STDs. In 1996, the United States federal government shifted the objective of sex education towards "[[abstinence-only sex education]]" programs, promoting sexual abstinence before marriage (i.e., virginity) and prohibiting information on birth control and contraception. In 2004, President [[George W. Bush]] announced a Five-Year Global [[HIV/AIDS]] Strategy, also known as the [[President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief]] (PEPFAR),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://img.thebody.com/whitehouse/aids_emergency.pdf|title=Organization|publisher=DoS|access-date=2013-12-26|archive-date=2014-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029202419/http://img.thebody.com/whitehouse/aids_emergency.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> which committed the U.S. to provide $15 billion over five years toward AIDS relief in 15 countries in Africa and the [[Caribbean]], and in Vietnam.<ref>The 15 countries are Botswana, Côte d'Ivoire, Ethiopia, Guyana, Haiti, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Vietnam, and Zambia.</ref> A part of the funding was earmarked specifically for "abstinence-only-until-marriage" programs.

In one study about virginity pledges, male pledgers were 4.1 times more likely to remain virgins by age 25 than those who did not pledge (25% vs 6%), and estimated that female pledgers were 3.5 times more likely to remain virgins by age 25 than those who did not pledge (21% vs 6%).<ref name="webmdVPDCSR"/><ref name="promise"/>

===Social psychology===
Some [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] argue that [[romantic love]] and [[sexual jealousy]] are universal features of human relationships.<ref>[[Donald Brown (anthropologist)|Donald Brown]], ''[[Human Universals]]'', 1991.</ref> Social values related to virginity reflect both sexual jealousy and ideals of romantic love, and appear to be deeply embedded in human nature.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

[[Psychology]] explores the connection between thought and behavior. Seeking understanding of social (or anti-social) behaviors includes sexual behavior. Joan Kahn and Kathryn London studied U.S. women married between 1965 and 1985 to see if virginity at marriage influenced risk of divorce. In this study, women who were virgins at the time of marriage were shown to have less marital upset. It was shown that when observable characteristics were controlled, women who were non-virgins at the time of marriage had a higher risk for divorce. However, it was also shown that the link between premarital sex and the risk of divorce were attributed to prior unobserved differences, such as deviating from norms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kahn|first1=J.|last2=London|first2=K.|year=1991|title=Premarital Sex and the Risk of Divorce|journal=Journal of Marriage and Family|volume=53|issue=4|pages=845–855|doi=10.2307/352992|jstor=352992}}</ref>

A study conducted by Smith and Schaffer found that someone's first sexual experience has been linked to their sexual performance for years to come. Participants whose first intercourse was pleasant showed more satisfaction in their current sex lives.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=C. Veronica|last2=Shaffer|first2=Matthew J.|date=2013-03-01|title=Gone But Not Forgotten: Virginity Loss and Current Sexual Satisfaction|journal=Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy|volume=39|issue=2|pages=96–111|doi=10.1080/0092623X.2012.675023|pmid=23252636|s2cid=36638516|issn=0092-623X}}</ref> A different study showed that when compared with virgins, nonvirgins have been shown to have higher levels of independence, less desire for achievement, more criticism from society and a greater level of deviance.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jessor|first1=Shirley|last2=Jessor|first2=Richard|year=1975|title=Transition from virginity to nonvirginity among youth: A social-psychological study over time.|journal=Developmental Psychology|volume=11|issue=4|pages=473–484|doi=10.1037/h0076664}}</ref>