Editing War of Devolution (section)

==War==
===May to September 1667; the Spanish Netherlands===
{{Location map many|Belgium|caption = The Spanish Netherlands, 1667 campaign; note modern Franco-Belgian boundary, blue lines indicate rivers|relief=yes|border = black| width = 300| float = right
|label = Oudenaarde|pos=right |lat_deg=50|lat_min =51|lon_deg = 3|lon_min = 36
|label3 =Antwerp |pos3= top|lat3_deg=51|lat3_min = 13|lon3_deg = 4|lon3_min = 24
|label4 =Tournai |pos4=right|lat4_deg=50|lat4_min = 36|lon4_deg = 3|lon4_min = 23
|label5= Charleroi|pos5=bottom|lat5_deg=50|lat5_min = 24|lon5_deg = 4|lon5_min = 26
|label6 = Lille |pos6=left|lat6_deg=50|lat6_min =38 |lon6_deg = 3 |lon6_min = 03
|label7= Namur|pos7 = right|lat7_deg = 50|lat7_min = 28| lon7_deg = 4|lon7_min = 52
|label8 = Maastricht|pos8 = right|lat8_deg = 50 | lat8_min = 51 | lon8_deg = 5 | lon8_min = 41
|label9 = Mézières|pos9 = left|lat9_deg = 49 | lat9_min =46 | lon9_deg =4 | lon9_min = 43
|label10 = Sierck|pos10 = bottom|lat10_deg = 49 | lat10_min =26 | lon10_deg =6 | lon10_min = 21
|label11 = Kortrijk|pos11 = left|lat11_deg=50|lat11_min=50|lon11_deg =3 | lon11_min = 16
|label12 = Brussels|pos12 = right|lat12_deg=50|lat12_min=41|lon12_deg =4 | lon12_min = 21
|label13 = Dendermonde|pos13 = left|lat13_deg=51|lat13_min=02|lon13_deg =4 | lon13_min = 06
|label14 = Aalst|pos14 = right|lat14_deg=50|lat14_min=56|lon14_deg =4 |lon14_min = 02
}}
The Spanish Netherlands was a compact area, dominated by canals and rivers. Until the advent of railways in the 19th century, goods and supplies were largely transported by water; campaigns in this theatre focused on control of strongpoints along rivers such as the [[Lys (river)|Lys]], [[Sambre]] and [[Meuse]].{{Sfn|Childs|1991|pp=32–33}}

After 1659, a series of military reforms initiated by [[Michel Le Tellier]] made the French army more professional, while improving its logistic support.{{Sfn|Rowlands|2010|p=147}} This allowed them to put larger numbers in the field, for longer periods; by 1667, the army had an authorised strength of 80,000, of whom 51,000 were deployed for the campaign.{{Sfn|Lynn|1996|p=106}}

[[Henri de La Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount of Turenne|Turenne]] was appointed supreme commander; his main force of 35,000 men and the artillery train were concentrated around [[Charleville-Mézières|Mézières]], on the River Meuse. Another 9,000 under [[Antoine d'Aumont, 1st Duke of Aumont|Antoine d'Aumont]] prepared to advance up the Lys, via [[Kortrijk]] and [[Oudenaarde]]; [[François de Créquy|de Créquy]] and 6,000 light cavalry were based at [[Sierck-les-Bains]], securing their flank against an attack from Germany. Accompanied by Louis and his entourage, the French crossed the border on 24 May.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|pp=299–300}}

Aware of these preparations, Spanish governor [[Francisco de Moura Corte Real, 3rd Marquis of Castelo Rodrigo|Castelo Rodrigo]] urgently requested additional funds from Madrid. Despite spending the enormous sum of 1.5&nbsp;million [[escudo]]s on her daughter's wedding, Mariana managed to increase the forces available to him from 11,000 in mid 1666 to 27,000 by April 1667.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2019|pp=34–36}}

Although insufficient to defend every position, the Spanish did not need to do so. Given time, it was accepted even the strongest fortifications would fall and their primary purpose was to delay, while the defenders mobilised reserves or found a diplomatic solution. Capturing towns was relatively easy, holding them far harder, since every garrison weakened the field army; over the next century, the French confronted this strategic dilemma time and again in this theatre.{{Sfn|Afflerbach|Strachan|2012|p=159}}

[[File:Diksmuide - Polders - IJzer.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|The [[Yser]] river, in [[Plain of Flanders|Maritime Flanders]]; a good example of the geography in this area]]

Turenne's first objective was [[Charleroi]], a key Spanish supply base; Castelo Rodrigo could not hold it and withdrew to [[Brussels]], first destroying its fortifications. On 2 June, [[Charles de Montsaulnin, Comte de Montal|De Montal]] was appointed French governor and given a garrison of 3,000, while [[Vauban]] began rebuilding its defences. By the end of July, Rochebaron had [[Siege of Tournai (1667)|captured Tournai]], Kortrijk and Oudenaarde; Turenne advanced on [[Dendermonde]], intending to take Antwerp.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=301}}

On 31 July, peace treaties were signed at Breda (between England and each of its opponents in the Second Anglo-Dutch War) and the Dutch began discussions with England and Spain on creating a diplomatic alliance against France. At the same time, Castelo Rodrigo opened the water defences, flooding the land and bringing the French advance to a halt. Turenne withdrew and on 10 August [[Siege of Lille (1667)|besieged Lille]], capital of the [[Walloons|Walloon region]] and an important commercial centre.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=301}}

The garrison were allowed to withdraw after surrendering on 28 August; three days later, [[John Gaspar Ferdinand de Marchin, Comte de Granville|de Marchin]] and a Spanish relief force of 12,000 ran into a French cavalry detachment on the Bruges road. Ordered to cut off his retreat, [[Bernardin Gigault de Bellefonds|Bellefonds]] and de Créquy inflicted nearly 2,000 casualties; in early 1668, Louis created both [[List of Marshals of France#Louis XIV, 1643–1715|Marshals of France]].{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=303}} On 12 September, Turenne captured [[Aalst, Belgium|Aalst]] but although his troops suffered relatively few battle casualties, sickness was a far bigger problem; in early October, campaigning ended for the winter.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=304}}

===Negotiations; winter 1667/1668===
[[File:Johan de Witt 1652.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Johan de Witt]], Dutch [[Grand Pensionary]]; he had to persuade Louis to withdraw, while keeping him as an ally]]
On 31 July 1667, the [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|Treaty of Breda]] ended the Anglo-Dutch War and negotiations began on a common front against France.{{Sfn|Geyl|1936|p=311}} This was driven by the [[States of Zeeland]], supported by [[Sir William Temple, 1st Baronet|Sir William Temple]], English ambassador in [[the Hague]] and [[Brussels]], and Francois-Paul de Lisola, Leopold's representative in London.{{Sfn|Goldie|Levillain|2018|p=5}}

De Witt summarised the Dutch dilemma as follows; 'to abandon Spain is to make France a present of the Netherlands, to take on her defence alone is folly.'{{Sfn|Macintosh|1973|p=111}} Although he and Charles of England preferred France, the vast majority of their countrymen did not, which meant they had to satisfy domestic opinion by making Louis retreat, but remain friends. According to the French [[Simon Arnauld, Marquis de Pomponne|ambassador in Sweden]], Charles quickly recognised this was almost impossible, and focused on ensuring Louis blamed De Witt.{{Sfn|Rowen|1954|p=6}}

From April 1667 to June 1668, Franco-Dutch trade declined by 30%, due to the imposition of French tariffs.{{Sfn|Macintosh|1973|pp=155}} Combined with the prospect of France as a neighbour, this led to widespread support for an Anglo-Dutch alliance among [[Orangism (Dutch Republic)|Orangists]], the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] and the general populace.{{Sfn|Rowen|1954|p=7}} In England, [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] and [[City of London Corporation|business]] wanted peace, while most preferred Spain for strategic and commercial reasons, including chief minister [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Lord Arlington]]; an Anglo-Dutch alliance in support of Spain seemed the ideal solution. Finally, it allowed Charles of England to keep Parliament happy, while demonstrating Dutch unreliability and thus increasing the price Louis would pay for his support in the [[Secret Treaty of Dover|1670 Treaty of Dover]].{{Sfn|Hutton|1986|pp=299–300}}

In September, De Witt promised to ensure Spain accepted French terms for ending the war, but Louis insisted he commit to enforcing them if needed. When Mariana refused, he persuaded the [[States of Holland and West Friesland|States of Holland]] to pass resolutions on 10 December and 14 January 1668, approving military action against Spain. This was strongly resisted by the other provinces, and the Orangist opposition in Holland.{{Sfn|Rowen|1954|p=4}}

[[File:Louis-xiv-lebrunl.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Louis XIV]], ca 1661]]

When Philip died in 1665, Spain's only ally was Leopold; by 1668, their diplomats had built relationships with the Orangists, England, and traditional French supporters like Sweden and Brandenburg. In September 1667, [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] was deposed by his brother [[Peter II of Portugal|Pedro]], who opened discussions on ending the Restoration war.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2019|p=47}} The 1667 agreement with France was annulled and on 13 February 1668, Spain recognised Portuguese independence with the [[Treaty of Lisbon (1668)|Treaty of Lisbon]].{{Sfn|Newitt|2004|p=228}}

To fund the 1668 campaign, Castelo Rodrigo agreed to a loan of 2&nbsp;million guilders from the Amsterdam financial markets; as security, the Dutch would be allowed to occupy Bruges, Ostend and Damme. The prospect of peace with Portugal meant Mariana could reject these conditions; she sent Castelo Rodrigo [[Letter of credit|letters of credit]] for 600,000 escudos and one million bars of silver. This allowed him to begin recruiting, while Brandenburg agreed to supply 12,000 troops.{{Sfn|Mitchell|2019|pp=50–52}}

On 20 January, Louis and Leopold signed a Partition Treaty, agreeing to the division of the Spanish Empire if Charles of Spain died; this included the terms given to De Witt in September.{{Sfn|Davenport|Paullin|1917|pp=144, 152}} The [[Triple Alliance (1668)|Triple Alliance]] was signed by England and the Dutch Republic on 23 January, the third member, [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]], formally joining on 5 May, three days after Aix-la-Chapelle.{{Sfn|Davenport|Paullin|1917|p=166}} It contained a pact of mutual defence, an agreement to ensure Spain accepted French terms, and secret clauses, including military action against France if Louis reneged on this promise.{{Sfn|Rowen|1954|pp=8–10}}

Ruvigny, French ambassador in London, received a copy within days, allegedly from Arlington, which he passed onto Lionne.{{Sfn|Rowen|1954|p=12}} Writing ten years later, largely to justify the subsequent [[Franco-Dutch War]], Louis claimed it was a calculated insult by the 'ungrateful Dutch nation', but his reaction at the time was far more moderate.{{Sfn|Sonino|1989|p=23}} The French recognised the military clause was largely unenforceable; as Turenne observed, 'the Dutch have more ill-will than power, the English neither troops or money'.{{Sfn|Sonino|1989|p=26}} Lionne also pointed out the Alliance's guarantee applied to both sides, obliging Spain to comply with French terms 'without it costing us a sou.'{{Sfn|Macintosh|1973|p=156}}

===February 1668; the campaign in Franche-Comté===
{{Location map many|France Bourgogne-Franche-Comté|caption = Modern department of Bourgogne (left) and Franche-Comté (right); key locations 1668 campaign |border = black|width =300|float = right|relief=yes|
|label  = Besançon   |pos = right|lat_deg =47|lat_min = 14|lon_deg = 6|lon_min = 1
|label2 = Dole       |pos2 = right |lat2_deg=47|lat2_min = 05|lon2_deg = 5|lon2_min = 30
|label3 = Gray       |pos3 = right |lat3_deg=47|lat3_min =27|lon3_deg = 5|lon3_min = 36
|label4 = Vesoul     |pos4 = right|lat4_deg=47|lat4_min =37|lon4_deg = 6|lon4_min = 10
|label5 = Salins-les-Bains|pos5 = bottom|lat5_deg =46|lat5_min =57|lon5_deg = 5|lon5_min = 53
|label6  = Dijon     |pos6 = top |lat6_deg =47|lat6_min=19|lon6_deg = 5|lon6_min = 01
|label7  = Nevers    |pos7 = right |lat7_deg =47|lat7_min=00|lon7_deg = 3|lon7_min = 10
|label8  = Auxonne   |pos8 = left |lat8_deg =47|lat8_min =12|lon8_deg = 5|lon8_min = 23
}}
Throughout his career, Louis sought to improve his position prior to negotiations; in September, he decided to occupy [[County of Burgundy|Franche-Comté]]. It was almost impossible for Spain to defend, while its governor, the Marquis de Yenne, had fewer than 2,000 men to hold the entire province.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=305}} French armies also benefitted from vastly superior logistics, allowing them to open campaigns before their opponents were ready. The invasion was planned for early February, normally considered impractical for troop movements, adding the factor of surprise to superior numbers.{{Sfn|Lynn|1996|p=112}}

The operation was commanded by the [[Louis, Grand Condé|Prince de Condé]]. Once France's leading general, he fought against Louis during the 1648 to 1653 [[Fronde]], then with Spain until 1659; this was his first command since returning from exile in 1660. Franche-Comté was considered part of [[Burgundy]], his family's traditional power base and his selection demonstrated royal control over an area with a long history as an independent state.{{Sfn|Swann|2003|p=44}}

To keep his opponents guessing, Louis announced plans to double the army to 134,000 and leaked details of a proposed 1668 campaign. Led by himself and Turenne, 66,000 men would complete the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands; a subsidiary force under [[Philippe I, Duke of Orléans|Philippe of Orléans]] would attack [[Catalonia]], with Condé in the [[Three Bishoprics]] to deter an attack from Germany.{{Sfn|Sonino|1989|pp=20–21}}

This provided cover for assembling troops and supplies in [[Dijon]]; by early February, Condé had 12,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry concentrated near [[Auxonne]]. He divided the army into two columns, the other led by [[François-Henri de Montmorency, duc de Luxembourg|Luxembourg]], and entered Franche-Comté on 4 February.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=305}} [[Free City of Besançon|Besançon]] and [[Salins-les-Bains]] surrendered on 7 February, after which Condé and Luxembourg moved onto [[Dole, Jura|Dole]], where they were joined by Louis on 9 February. His presence resulted in a largely unnecessary assault, which cost the French between 400 and 500 casualties, their only significant losses of the campaign. Dole surrendered on 14 February, followed by the provincial capital of [[Gray, Haute-Saône|Gray]] on 19th; Louis was back in [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye|Saint-Germain]] on 24th.{{Sfn|De Périni|1896|p=306}}

===May 1668; Northern Catalonia===
On the southern front, the Spanish took the initiative; the [[Gaspar Téllez-Girón, 5th Duke de Osuna|Duke of Osuna]], [[Viceroy of Catalonia]], invaded the [[Upper Cerdanya]] with 2,300 infantry and 200 cavalry.{{Sfn|Espino López|1997|p=9}} Weak French defences allowed him to capture 55 villages in the region, although irregular local ''[[miquelets]]'' combined with the French military in resisting the invasion.{{Sfn|Espino López|1999|p=266}} Spanish incursions continued until 1669, forcing the French to fortify the border.{{Sfn|Jané Checa|2003|p=454}}

===Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle===
With the largest army in Europe, Turenne, Condé and Orléans argued for continuing the war. Lionne, Colbert and Le Tellier recommended peace, primarily on financial grounds; the 1660s was a period of significant economic decline, and war was expensive. France was unprepared for a naval war against the Dutch and English, and while Colbert had initiated policies aimed at reducing its dependence on Dutch shipping for transporting goods, this would take time.{{Sfn|Macintosh|1973|pp=153–154}} In addition to those already contracted with Brandenburg, [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine|Charles of Lorraine]] offered Mariana another 8,000 men. {{Sfn|Macintosh|1973|p=163}}

In February, seven year old Charles was reported to be suffering from [[smallpox]], an often fatal disease; his death would give Louis a good chance of achieving his objectives without fighting. The combination decided him on peace; on 25 April, the Treaty of Saint Germain, between France, England and the Republic, finalised terms, which were then incorporated into the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], signed by Spain and France on 2 May.{{Sfn|Lesaffer}}