Editing Computing (section)

==Research and emerging technologies==
{{further|List of unsolved problems in computer science}}
[[DNA computing|DNA-based computing]] and [[quantum computing]] are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of [[quantum algorithm]]s. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes [[DNA origami]] on photolithography<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kershner | first1 = Ryan J. | last2 = Bozano | first2 = Luisa D. | last3 = Micheel | first3 = Christine M. | last4 = Hung | first4 = Albert M. | last5 = Fornof | first5 = Ann R. | last6 = Cha | first6 = Jennifer N. | last7 = Rettner | first7 = Charles T. | last8 = Bersani | first8 = Marco | last9 = Frommer | first9 = Jane | last10 = Rothemund | first10 = Paul W. K. | last11 = Wallraff | first11 = Gregory M. | year = 2009 | title = Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces | journal = [[Nature Nanotechnology]] | volume =  4| issue = 9| pages =  557–561| doi = 10.1038/nnano.2009.220 | pmid = 19734926 | bibcode = 2009NatNa...4..557K | citeseerx = 10.1.1.212.9767 }} [http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/extref/nnano.2009.220-s1.pdf supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography]</ref> and [[quantum antenna]]e for transferring information between ion traps.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature09800 | volume=471 | title=Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information | year=2011 | journal=Nature | pages=200–203  | last1 = Harlander | first1 = M.| issue = 7337 | pmid = 21346764 | arxiv = 1011.3639 | bibcode = 2011Natur.471..200H | s2cid = 4388493 }}
*{{cite press release |date=26 February 2011 |title=Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110223133444.htm}}</ref> By 2011, researchers had [[Qubit#Quantum entanglement|entangled]] 14 [[qubit]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506 | volume=106 | title=14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence | year=2011 | journal=Physical Review Letters | last1 = Monz | first1 = Thomas| issue=13 | pmid=21517367 | arxiv=1009.6126 | bibcode=2011PhRvL.106m0506M | page=130506 | s2cid=8155660 }}
</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=20823.php|title=World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits|website=www.nanowerk.com}}</ref> Fast [[digital circuit]]s, including those based on [[Josephson junction]]s and [[rapid single flux quantum]] technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of [[nanoscale superconductor]]s.<ref>Saw-Wai Hla et al., ''Nature Nanotechnology'' 31 March 2010 [http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/  "World's smallest superconductor discovered"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528133148/http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ |date=28 May 2010 }}. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87 [[nanometer]]s. Access date 31 March 2010</ref>

Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.<ref>[http://www.technologyreview.com/computing/25924/?a=f Tom Simonite, "Computing at the speed of light", ''Technology Review'' Wed., August 4, 2010] [[MIT]]</ref> IBM has created an [[integrated circuit]] with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).<ref>[http://www.extremetech.com/computing/142881-ibm-creates-first-cheap-commercially-viable-silicon-nanophotonic-chip Sebastian Anthony (Dec 10,2012), "IBM creates first commercially viable silicon nanophotonic chip"], accessdate=2012-12-10</ref> One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.<ref>[https://www.zdnet.com/article/open-compute-does-the-data-center-have-an-open-future/ Open Compute: Does the data center have an open future?] accessdate=2013-08-11</ref>

Another field of research is [[spintronics]]. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.<ref>{{Cite news|date=8 August 2007|title=Putting electronics in a spin|language=en-GB|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6935638.stm|access-date=23 November 2020}}</ref> Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine [[photonics]] and spintronics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.spice.uni-mainz.de/files/2018/11/UFS_2018_Koopmans.pdf |title=Merging spintronics with photonics |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906155347/https://www.spice.uni-mainz.de/files/2018/11/UFS_2018_Koopmans.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lalieu|first1=M. L. M.|last2=Lavrijsen|first2=R.|last3=Koopmans|first3=B.|date=10 January 2019|title=Integrating all-optical switching with spintronics|url= |journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=110|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-08062-4|pmid=30631067|pmc=6328538|arxiv=1809.02347|bibcode=2019NatCo..10..110L|issn=2041-1723}}</ref> There is also research ongoing on combining [[plasmonics]], photonics, and electronics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farmakidis|first1=Nikolaos|last2=Youngblood|first2=Nathan|last3=Li|first3=Xuan|last4=Tan|first4=James|last5=Swett|first5=Jacob L.|last6=Cheng|first6=Zengguang|last7=Wright|first7=C. David|last8=Pernice|first8=Wolfram H. P.|last9=Bhaskaran|first9=Harish|date=1 November 2019|title=Plasmonic nanogap enhanced phase-change devices with dual electrical-optical functionality|url= |journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=eaaw2687|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw2687|pmid=31819898|pmc=6884412|arxiv=1811.07651|bibcode=2019SciA....5.2687F|issn=2375-2548}}</ref>

=== Cloud computing ===
Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of [[Software as a service|Software as a Service]], [[Platform as a service|Platforms as a Service]], and [[Infrastructure as a service|Infrastructure as a Service]], depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing|date=September 2011|work=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref> It allows individual users or small business to benefit from [[economies of scale]].

One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berl|first1=A.|last2=Gelenbe|first2=E.|last3=Girolamo|first3=M. Di|last4=Giuliani|first4=G.|last5=Meer|first5=H. De|last6=Dang|first6=M. Q.|last7=Pentikousis|first7=K.|date=September 2010|title=Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8130358|journal=The Computer Journal|volume=53|issue=7|pages=1045–1051|doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxp080|issn=1460-2067|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=L. M.|date=July 2009|title=Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing|journal=IEEE Security Privacy|volume=7|issue=4|pages=61–64|doi=10.1109/MSP.2009.87|s2cid=16233643|issn=1558-4046}}</ref>

=== Quantum computing ===
[[Quantum computing]] is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steane|first=Andrew|date=1 February 1998|title=Quantum computing|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=117–173|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002|issn=0034-4885|bibcode=1998RPPh...61..117S|arxiv=quant-ph/9708022|s2cid=119473861}}</ref> Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses [[qubit]]s. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as [[quantum entanglement]], and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Horodecki|first1=Ryszard|last2=Horodecki|first2=Paweł|last3=Horodecki|first3=Michał|last4=Horodecki|first4=Karol|date=17 June 2009|title=Quantum entanglement|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|volume=81|issue=2|pages=865–942|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865|bibcode=2009RvMP...81..865H|arxiv=quant-ph/0702225|s2cid=59577352}}</ref> Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in [[Molecular modelling|molecular modeling]]. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title= Quantum Computing for Molecular Biology*|journal=ChemBioChem |date=3 July 2023 |volume=24 |issue=13 |doi=10.1002/cbic.202300120 |url=https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cbic.202300120 |last1=Baiardi |first1=Alberto |last2=Christandl |first2=Matthias |last3=Reiher |first3=Markus |pages=e202300120 |pmid=37151197 |arxiv=2212.12220 }}</ref>