Editing Democracy (section)

==Types of governmental democracies==
{{Main|Types of democracy}}

Democracy has taken a number of forms, both in theory and practice. Some varieties of democracy provide better representation and more freedom for their citizens than others.<ref>G.F. Gaus, C. Kukathas, ''Handbook of Political Theory'', SAGE, 2004, pp.&nbsp;143–45, {{ISBN|978-0-7619-6787-3}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RGisaLxA6eMC Google Books link]</ref><ref>''The Judge in a Democracy'', Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 26, {{ISBN|978-0-691-12017-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC Google Books link]</ref> However, if any democracy is not structured to prohibit the government from excluding the people from the legislative process, or any branch of government from altering the [[separation of powers]] in its favour, then a branch of the system can accumulate too much power and destroy the democracy.<ref>A. Barak, ''The Judge in a Democracy'', Princeton University Press, 2006, p. 40, {{ISBN|978-0-691-12017-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=3HX7mAbjGOYC Google Books link]</ref><ref>T.R. Williamson, ''Problems in American Democracy'', Kessinger Publishing, 2004, p. 36, {{ISBN|978-1-4191-4316-8}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=NrUlR8nc9Q8C Google Books link]</ref><ref>U.K. Preuss, "Perspectives of Democracy and the Rule of Law". ''Journal of Law and Society'', 18:3 (1991). pp. 353–64</ref>

{{Systems of government|right|2=upright=2.0}}

The following kinds of democracy are not exclusive of one another: many specify details of aspects that are independent of one another and can co-exist in a single system.

===Basic forms===
Several variants of democracy exist, but there are two basic forms, both of which concern how the whole body of all eligible citizens executes its will. One form of democracy is [[direct democracy]], in which all eligible citizens have active participation in the political decision making, for example voting on policy initiatives directly.<ref>{{cite book|author=Budge, Ian|chapter=Direct democracy|editor=Clarke, Paul A.B.|editor2=Foweraker, Joe|title=Encyclopedia of Political Thought|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=978-0-415-19396-2|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=srzDCqnZkfUC&pg=PA224}}</ref> In most modern democracies, the whole body of eligible citizens remain the sovereign power but political power is exercised indirectly through elected representatives; this is called a [[representative democracy]].

====Direct====
{{Main|Direct democracy}}
[[File:Landsgemeinde Glarus, 2009.jpg|thumb|A [[Landsgemeinde]] (in 2009) of the [[canton of Glarus]], an example of direct democracy in Switzerland]]
[[File:Swiss voting material.jpg|thumb|In [[Voting in Switzerland|Switzerland]], without needing to register, every citizen receives [[ballot papers]] and information brochures for each vote (and can send it back by post). Switzerland has a [[direct democracy]] system and votes (and elections) are organised about four times a year; here, to [[Bern#Politics|Berne]]'s citizen in November 2008 about 5 national, 2 cantonal, 4 municipal referendums, and 2 elections (government and parliament of the City of Berne) to take care of at the same time.]]

Direct democracy is a political system where the citizens participate in the decision-making personally, contrary to relying on intermediaries or representatives. A direct democracy gives the voting population the power to:
* Change constitutional laws,
* Put forth [[Popular initiative|initiative]]s, [[referendum]]s and suggestions for laws

Within modern-day representative governments, certain electoral tools like referendums, citizens' initiatives and [[recall election]]s are referred to as forms of direct democracy.<ref>Beramendi, Virginia, and Jennifer Somalie. Angeyo. ''Direct Democracy: The International Idea Handbook''. Stockholm, Sweden: International IDEA, 2008. Print.</ref> However, some advocates of direct democracy argue for local assemblies of face-to-face discussion. Direct democracy as a government system currently exists in the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of [[Canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden|Appenzell Innerrhoden]] and [[Canton of Glarus|Glarus]],<ref name="Golay" /> the [[Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities]],<ref>Niels Barmeyer, ''Developing Zapatista Autonomy'', Chapter Three: Who is Running the Show? The Workings of Zapatista Government.</ref> communities affiliated with the [[CIPO-RFM]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilization in Oaxaca|last=Denham|first=Diana|year=2008}}</ref> the [[Bolivia]]n city councils of [[Fejuve|FEJUVE]],<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dispersing Power: Social Movements as Anti-State Forces in Latin America|last=Zibechi|first=Raul|year=2013}}</ref> and Kurdish cantons of [[Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Rojava]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/29012015|title=A Very Different Ideology in the Middle East|publisher=Rudaw}}</ref>

=====Semi-direct=====
Some modern democracies that are predominantly representative in nature also heavily rely upon forms of political action that are directly democratic. These democracies, which combine elements of representative democracy and direct democracy, are termed ''semi-direct democracies'' or ''participatory democracies''. Examples include Switzerland and some [[U.S. state]]s, where frequent use is made of [[referendum]]s and [[initiatives]].

The [[Swiss confederation]] is a semi-direct democracy.<ref name="Golay" /> At the federal level, citizens can propose changes to the constitution ([[federal popular initiative]]) or ask for a [[Optional referendum|referendum]] to be held on any law voted by the [[Federal Assembly (Switzerland)|parliament]].<ref name="Golay" /> Between January 1995 and June 2005, Swiss citizens voted 31 times, to answer 103 questions (during the same period, French citizens participated in only two referendums).<ref name="Golay" /> Although in the past 120 years less than 250 initiatives have been put to referendum.<ref>{{Citation|last=Serdült|first=Uwe|title=Referendums in Switzerland|date=2014|url=https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137314703_4|work=Referendums Around the World: The Continued Growth of Direct Democracy|pages=65–121|editor-last=Qvortrup|editor-first=Matt|place=London|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|doi=10.1057/9781137314703_4|isbn=978-1-137-31470-3|access-date=2022-06-17}}</ref>

Examples include the extensive use of [[referendum]]s in the US state of [[California]], which is a state that has more than 20 million voters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.themercury.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3985561|title=Article on direct democracy by Imraan Buccus|publisher=Themercury.co.za|access-date=22 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100117121519/http://www.themercury.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3985561|archive-date=17 January 2010}}</ref>

In [[New England]], [[town meeting]]s are often used, especially in rural areas, to manage local government. This creates a hybrid form of government, with a local [[direct democracy]] and a representative state government. For example, most [[Vermont]] towns hold annual town meetings in March in which town officers are elected, budgets for the town and schools are voted on, and citizens have the opportunity to speak and be heard on political matters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sec.state.vt.us/townmeeting/citizens_guide.html|title=A Citizen's Guide To Vermont Town Meeting|date=July 2008|access-date=12 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805023214/http://www.sec.state.vt.us/TownMeeting/citizens_guide.html|archive-date=5 August 2012}}</ref>

=====Lot system=====
The use of a lot system, a characteristic of [[Athenian democracy]], is a feature of some versions of direct democracies. In this system, important governmental and administrative tasks are performed by citizens picked from a lottery.<ref name ="Manin 1997">{{cite book|author=Manin, Bernard|title=Principles of Representative Government|year=1997|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=8–11|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511659935 |isbn=978-0-521-45891-7 |s2cid=153766786|url=http://www.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam031/96019710.html}}</ref>

====Representative====
{{Main|Representative democracy}}

Representative democracy involves the election of government officials by the people being represented. If the head of state is also [[Democratically elected government|democratically elected]] then it is called a democratic [[republic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REV/RADICAL.HTM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19990203212816/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/REV/RADICAL.HTM|archive-date=3 February 1999|title=Radical Revolution – The Thermidorean Reaction|publisher=Wsu.edu|date=6 June 1999|access-date=22 August 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The most common mechanisms involve election of the candidate with a majority or a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of the votes. Most western countries have representative systems.<ref name="Golay" />

Representatives may be elected or become diplomatic representatives by a particular district (or [[constituency]]), or represent the entire electorate through [[Proportional representation|proportional]] systems, with some using a combination of the two. Some representative democracies also incorporate elements of direct democracy, such as [[referendum]]s. A characteristic of representative democracy is that while the representatives are elected by the people to act in the people's interest, they retain the freedom to exercise their own judgement as how best to do so. Such reasons have driven criticism upon representative democracy,<ref>{{cite book|last=Köchler|first=Hans|title=The Crisis of Representative Democracy|publisher=Frankfurt/M., Bern, New York|isbn=978-3-8204-8843-2|year=1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Urbinati|first=Nadia|title=Representative Democracy: Principles and Genealogy|isbn=978-0-226-84279-0|date=1 October 2008|chapter=2|publisher=University of Chicago Press}}</ref> pointing out the contradictions of representation mechanisms with democracy<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fenichel Pitkin|first=Hanna|s2cid=154048078|title=Representation and democracy: uneasy alliance|journal=[[Scandinavian Political Studies]]|volume=27|issue=3|pages=335–42|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9477.2004.00109.x|date=September 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Aristotle|title=Politics|volume=Book 4|chapter=Ch. 9}}</ref>

=====Parliamentary=====
{{Main|Parliamentary system}}
[[File:Houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Palace of Westminster]] in [[London]], United Kingdom. The [[Westminster system]] originates from the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Houses of Parliament]].]]
Parliamentary democracy is a representative democracy where government is appointed by or can be dismissed by, representatives as opposed to a "presidential rule" wherein the president is both head of state and the head of government and is elected by the voters. Under a parliamentary democracy, government is exercised by delegation to an executive ministry and subject to ongoing review, checks and balances by the legislative parliament elected by the people.<ref>[[Keen, Benjamin]], A History of Latin America. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980.</ref><ref>Kuykendall, Ralph, Hawaii: A History. New York: Prentice Hall, 1948.</ref><ref>Brown, Charles H., The Correspondents' War. New York: [[Charles Scribner's Sons]], 1967.</ref><ref>Taussig, Capt. J. K., "Experiences during the Boxer Rebellion," in Quarterdeck and Fo'c'sle. Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963</ref>

In a parliamentary system, the prime minister may be dismissed by the legislature at any point in time for not meeting the expectations of the legislature. This is done through a vote of no confidence where the legislature decides whether or not to remove the prime minister from office with majority support for dismissal.<ref name="O'Neil, Patrick H 2010" /> In some countries, the prime minister can also call an election at any point in time, typically when the prime minister believes that they are in good favour with the public as to get re-elected. In other parliamentary democracies, extra elections are virtually never held, a minority government being preferred until the next ordinary elections. An important feature of the parliamentary democracy is the concept of the "[[loyal opposition]]". The essence of the concept is that the second largest political party (or opposition) opposes the governing party (or coalition), while still remaining loyal to the state and its democratic principles.

=====Presidential=====
{{Main|Presidential system}}

Presidential democracy is a system where the public elects the president through an election. The president serves as both the head of state and head of government controlling most of the executive powers. The president serves for a specific term and cannot exceed that amount of time. The legislature often has limited ability to remove a president from office. Elections typically have a fixed date and are not easily changed. The president has direct control over the cabinet, specifically appointing the cabinet members.<ref name="O'Neil, Patrick H 2010" />

The executive usually has the responsibility to execute or implement legislation and may have the limited legislative powers, such as a veto. However, a legislative branch passes legislation and budgets. This provides some measure of [[separation of powers]]. In consequence, however, the president and the legislature may end up in the control of separate parties, allowing one to block the other and thereby interfere with the orderly operation of the state. This may be the reason why presidential democracy is not very common outside the Americas, Africa, and Central and Southeast Asia.<ref name="O'Neil, Patrick H 2010" />

A [[semi-presidential system]] is a system of democracy in which the government includes both a prime minister and a president. The particular powers held by the prime minister and president vary by country.<ref name="O'Neil, Patrick H 2010" />

===Typology===

====Constitutional monarchy====
{{Main|Constitutional monarchy}}

Many countries such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian countries]], [[Thailand]], [[Japan]] and [[Bhutan]] turned powerful monarchs into constitutional monarchs (often gradually) with limited or symbolic roles. For example, in the predecessor states to the United Kingdom, constitutional monarchy began to emerge and has continued uninterrupted since the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 and passage of the [[Bill of Rights 1689]].<ref name="Kopstein2014" /><ref name="refNARoP" /> Strongly limited constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, have been referred to as [[crowned republic]]s by writers such as [[H. G. Wells]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=64. The British Empire in 1914. Wells, H.G. 1922. A Short History of the World|url=https://www.bartleby.com/86/64.html|access-date=8 January 2022|website=bartleby.com}}</ref>

In other countries, the monarchy was abolished along with the aristocratic system (as in [[France]], [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]], and [[Egypt]]). An elected person, with or without significant powers, became the head of state in these countries.

Elite upper houses of legislatures, which often had lifetime or hereditary tenure, were common in many states. Over time, these either had their powers limited (as with the British [[House of Lords]]) or else became elective and remained powerful (as with the [[Australian Senate]]).

====Republic====
{{Main|Republicanism}}

The term ''[[republic]]'' has many different meanings, but today often refers to a representative democracy with an elected [[head of state]], such as a [[President (government title)|president]], serving for a limited term, in contrast to states with a hereditary [[monarch]] as a head of state, even if these states also are representative democracies with an elected or appointed [[head of government]] such as a [[Prime Minister|prime minister]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/republic|title=Republic – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary|publisher=M-W.com|date=25 April 2007|access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref>

The [[Founding Fathers of the United States]] often criticised [[direct democracy]], which in their view often came without the protection of a constitution enshrining inalienable rights; [[James Madison]] argued, especially in [[Federalist No. 10|''The Federalist'' No. 10]], that what distinguished a direct ''democracy'' from a ''republic'' was that the former became weaker as it got larger and suffered more violently from the effects of faction, whereas a republic could get stronger as it got larger and combats faction by its very structure.<ref name="Federalist10">{{cite web|title=The Federalist Papers : No. 10|url=https://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/fed10.asp|work=[[Avalon Project]]|date=29 December 1998|access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>

Professors Richard Ellis of [[Willamette University]] and Michael Nelson of [[Rhodes College]] argue that much constitutional thought, from Madison to Lincoln and beyond, has focused on "the problem of majority tyranny". They conclude, "The principles of republican government embedded in the Constitution represent an effort by the framers to ensure that the inalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness would not be trampled by majorities."<ref>Richard J. Ellis and Michael Nelson, ''Debating the presidency'' (2009) p. 211</ref> What was critical to American values, [[John Adams]] insisted,<ref>Novanglus, no. 7. 6 March 1775</ref> was that the government be "bound by fixed laws, which the people have a voice in making, and a right to defend." As Benjamin Franklin was exiting after writing the US Constitution, [[Elizabeth Willing Powel]]<ref name="Brockell">{{cite news|last1=Brockell|first1=Gillian|title='A republic, if you can keep it': Did Ben Franklin really say Impeachment Day's favorite quote?|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/12/18/republic-if-you-can-keep-it-did-ben-franklin-really-say-impeachment-days-favorite-quote/|access-date=20 January 2021|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=19 December 2019}}</ref> asked him "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a republic or a monarchy?". He replied "A republic—if you can keep it."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch18I.html|title=''The Founders' Constitution: Volume 1, Chapter 18, Introduction'', "Epilogue: Securing the Republic"|publisher=Press-pubs.uchicago.edu|access-date=22 August 2010}}</ref>

====Liberal====
{{Main|Liberal democracy}}

A liberal democracy is a representative democracy which enshrines a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political philosophy]], where the ability of the elected representatives to exercise decision-making power is subject to the [[rule of law]], moderated by a constitution or laws such as the protection of the rights and freedoms of individuals, and constrained on the extent to which the will of the majority can be exercised against the rights of minorities.<ref name="He 2022 pp. 111–139">{{cite journal | last=He | first=Jiacheng | title=The Patterns of Democracy in Context of Historical Political Science | journal=Chinese Political Science Review | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=7 | issue=1 | date=Jan 8, 2022 | issn=2365-4244 | doi=10.1007/s41111-021-00201-5 | pages=111–139| s2cid=256470545 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Socialist====
{{Main|Socialist democracy|Social democracy|Democratic socialism}}
[[Socialism|Socialist]] thought has several different views on democracy, for example [[social democracy]] or [[democratic socialism]]. Many democratic socialists and social democrats believe in a form of [[participatory democracy|participatory]], [[industrial democracy|industrial]], [[economic democracy|economic]] and/or [[workplace democracy]] combined with a [[representative democracy]].

====Marxist====
{{Main|Democracy in Marxism}}
[[Marxist theory]] supports a democratic society centering the [[working class]].<ref name="Clark1998">{{cite book |author=Barry Stewart Clark|title=Political economy: a comparative approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3bJHvA1H-2kC&pg=PA57|access-date=7 March 2011|year=1998|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-275-96370-5|pages=57–59}}</ref> Some Marxists and [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]] believe in [[direct democracy]] or [[workers' council]]s (which are sometimes called [[Soviet (council)|soviets]]). This system can begin with workplace democracy and can manifest itself as [[soviet democracy]] or [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].<ref name="Kazuko 2014">{{cite journal|last=Kazuko|first=Kawamoto|date=2014|title=Rethinking Soviet Democracy|journal=Japanese Political Science Review|volume=2|issue=2|pages=111–133|doi=10.15545/2.111|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Swearer|first=Howard R.|date=1961|title=The Functions of Soviet Local Elections|journal=Midwest Journal of Political Science|volume=5|issue=2|pages=129–149|doi=10.2307/2109266|jstor=2109266|issn=0026-3397|url=http://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/POSO/article/view/54803}}</ref> [[Trotskyist]] groups have interpreted socialist democracy to be synonymous with [[multi-party]] [[Far-left politics|far-left]] representation, [[economic democracy|autonomous union organizations]], [[worker's control|worker's control of production]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wiles|first1=Peter|title=The Soviet Economy on the Brink of Reform: Essays in Honor of Alec Nove|date=14 June 2023|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-000-88190-5|page=31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHAIEQAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+legalization+of+soviet+parties+worker+control+of+production&pg=PA31}}</ref> internal party democracy and the [[worker self-management|mass participation of the working masses]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mandel|first1=Ernest|title=Trotsky as Alternative|date=5 May 2020|publisher=Verso Books|isbn=978-1-78960-701-7|pages=84–86|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVmcEAAAQBAJ&dq=trotsky+as+alternative+mandel&pg=PT80}}</ref><ref name="Pathfinder Press">{{cite book|last1=Trotsky|first1=Leon|title=The Transitional Program for Socialist Revolution: Including The Death Agony of Capitalism and the Tasks of the Fourth International|date=1977|publisher=Pathfinder Press|isbn=978-0-87348-524-1|pages=145–146|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rL8gAQAAIAAJ&q=the+transitional+program+trotsky}}</ref> Some [[communist party|communist parties]] support a [[soviet republic]] with [[democratic centralism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Lenin|first=V. I.|author-link=Vladimir Lenin|orig-date=1905|chapter=Freedom to Criticise and Unity of Action|title=Lenin's Collected Works|publisher=[[Progress Publishers]]|date=1965|location=Moscow|volume=10|pages=442–443|url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1906/may/20c.htm|via=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124192311/https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1906/may/20c.htm|archive-date=24 January 2021|access-date=30 November 2011}}</ref> Within [[democracy in Marxism]] there can be hostility to what is commonly called "liberal democracy". 

====Anarchist====
[[Anarchism|Anarchists]] are split in this domain, depending on whether they believe that a [[Tyranny of the majority|majority-rule is tyrannic or not]]. To many anarchists, the only form of democracy considered acceptable is direct democracy. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argued that the only acceptable form of direct democracy is one in which it is recognised that majority decisions are not binding on the minority, even when unanimous.<ref>Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. ''General Idea of the Revolution'' See also commentary by [[Robert Graham (historian)|Graham, Robert]]. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/ANARCHIST_ARCHIVES/proudhon/grahamproudhon.html ''The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution'']</ref> However, [[anarcho-communist]] [[Murray Bookchin]] criticised [[individualist anarchists]] for opposing democracy,<ref>Bookchin, Murray. Communalism: The Democratic Dimensions of Social Anarchism. Anarchism, Marxism and the Future of the Left: Interviews and Essays, 1993–1998, AK Press 1999, p. 155</ref> and says "majority rule" is consistent with anarchism.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bookchin/soclife.html Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm]</ref>

Some anarcho-communists oppose the majoritarian nature of direct democracy, feeling that it can impede individual liberty and opt-in favour of a non-majoritarian form of [[consensus democracy]], similar to Proudhon's position on direct democracy.<ref>Graeber, David and Grubacic, Andrej. ''Anarchism, Or The Revolutionary Movement of the Twenty-first Century''</ref>

====Sortition====
{{Main|Sortition}}

[[Sortition]] is the process of choosing decision-making bodies via a random selection. These bodies can be more representative of the opinions and interests of the people at large than an elected legislature or other decision-maker. The technique was in widespread use in [[Athenian Democracy]] and [[Republic of Florence|Renaissance Florence]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dowlen|first1=Oliver|title=The Political Potential of Sortition: A study of the random selection of citizens for public office|date=2008|publisher=Imprint Academic}}</ref> and is still used in modern [[jury selection]] and [[Citizens' assembly|citizens' assemblies]].

====Consociational====
{{Main|Consociational democracy}}

Consociational democracy, also called [[consociationalism]], is a form of democracy based on power-sharing formula between elites representing the social groups within the society. In 1969, Arendt Lijphart argued this would stabilize democracies with factions.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Arend|first=Lijphart|date=January 1969|title=Consociational Democracy|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/consociational-democracy/BB47BF2A5A4EBAE341FD3FA4E262410F|journal=World Politics|volume=21|issue=2|pages=207–225|doi=10.2307/2009820|jstor=2009820|s2cid=251572712}}</ref> A consociational democracy allows for simultaneous majority votes in two or more ethno-religious constituencies, and policies are enacted only if they gain majority support from both or all of them. The [[Qualified majority voting]] rule in [[European Council of Ministers]] is a consociational democracy approach for supranational democracies. This system in [[Treaty of Rome]] allocates votes to member states in part according to their population, but heavily weighted in favour of the smaller states. A consociational democracy requires consensus of representatives, while consensus democracy requires consensus of electorate.{{update inline|date=February 2024|reason=The only source cited is from 1969 – needs update on the latest scholarship regarding how these experiments have or have not worked}}

====Majoritarian====
{{Excerpt|Majoritarian democracy|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs|hat=no}}

====Consensus====
{{Main|Consensus democracy}}

Consensus democracy<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0010414012463883|title=The Calculus of Consensus Democracy: Rethinking Patterns of Democracy Without Veto Players|first1=Anthony J.|last1=McGann|first2=Michael|last2=Latner|date=16 July 2013|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=46|issue=7|pages=823–850|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1177/0010414012463883}}</ref> requires [[consensus decision-making]] and [[supermajority]] to obtain a larger support than [[majority]]. In contrast, in [[majoritarian democracy]] minority opinions can potentially be ignored by vote-winning majorities.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09512748.2022.2035426|title=The shift to consensus democracy and limits of institutional design in Asia|first1=Yuko|last1=Kasuya|first2=Benjamin|last2=Reilly|date=4 July 2023|journal=The Pacific Review|volume=36|issue=4|pages=844–870|via=CrossRef|doi=10.1080/09512748.2022.2035426}}</ref> [[Constitution]]s typically require consensus or supermajorities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/shclj8&i=371|title=shclj8|website=heinonline.org}}</ref>

====Ethnic====
{{Excerpt|Ethnic democracy|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

====Inclusive====
{{Main|Inclusive democracy}}

Inclusive democracy is a political theory and political project that aims for [[direct democracy]] in all fields of social life: political democracy in the form of face-to-face assemblies which are confederated, [[economic democracy]] in a [[Stateless society|stateless]], moneyless and marketless economy, democracy in the social realm, i.e. [[Workers' self-management|self-management]] in places of work and education, and ecological democracy which aims to reintegrate society and nature. The theoretical project of inclusive democracy emerged from the work of political philosopher [[Takis Fotopoulos]] in "Towards An Inclusive Democracy" and was further developed in the journal ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy''.<ref>Jorge Camil, review of Hacia Una Democracia Inclusiva (in Spanish), La Jornada, Friday, 8 June 2001.</ref><ref>Arran Gare, review of Towards an Inclusive Democracy, Review of Radical Political Economics, Vol. 34 (1), Winter 2002, p. 97–99.</ref><ref>Michael Levin, review of Towards an Inclusive Democracy, [[Anarchist Studies]], Vol. 5,  No. 2, October 1997.</ref><ref>John Griffin, Dodgy Logic and the Olympians, Total Liberty, 1999-2000, p. 10–11.</ref><ref>James Herod, review of Towards an Inclusive Democracy, [http://libcom.org/files/Getting%20Free.pdf Getting Free: Creating an Association of Democratic Autonomous Neighborhoods], [[Lucy Parsons Center]] (first printing edition), May 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.greenleft.org.au/content/towards-anti-capitalist-synthesis-what-can-ecosocialists-learn-ecoanarchists|title=Towards an anti-capitalist synthesis: what can ecosocialists learn from ecoanarchists?|date=November 19, 2020|access-date=January 2, 2021|author=Baer, Hans|work=Green Left}}</ref>

====Participatory====
{{Main|Participatory politics}}

A [[parpolity]] or participatory polity is a theoretical form of democracy that is ruled by a [[Parpolity|nested council]] structure. The guiding philosophy is that people should have decision-making power in proportion to how much they are affected by the decision. Local councils of 25–50 people are completely autonomous on issues that affect only them, and these councils send delegates to higher level councils who are again autonomous regarding issues that affect only the population affected by that council.

A council court of randomly chosen citizens serves as a check on the [[tyranny of the majority]], and rules on which body gets to vote on which issue. Delegates may vote differently from how their sending council might wish but are mandated to communicate the wishes of their sending council. Delegates are recallable at any time. Referendums are possible at any time via votes of lower-level councils, however, not everything is a referendum as this is most likely a waste of time. A parpolity is meant to work in tandem with a [[participatory economy]].

====Procedural====
{{Excerpt|Procedural democracy|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs|hat=no}}

====Radical====
[[Radical democracy]] is based on the idea that there are hierarchical and oppressive power relations that exist in society. Radical democracy's role is to make visible and challenge those relations by allowing for difference, dissent and antagonisms in decision-making processes.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Springer|first1=Simon|year=2011|title=Public Space as Emancipation: Meditations on Anarchism, Radical Democracy, Neoliberalism and Violence|url=https://www.academia.edu/354048|journal=Antipode|volume=43|issue=2|pages=525–62|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8330.2010.00827.x|bibcode=2011Antip..43..525S}}</ref>

====Religious====
{{Excerpt|Religious democracy|paragraphs=1|only=paragraphs}}

====Cosmopolitan====
{{Main|Cosmopolitan democracy}}

Cosmopolitan democracy, also known as ''global democracy'' or ''world federalism'', is a political system in which democracy is implemented on a global scale, either directly or through representatives. An important justification for this kind of system is that the decisions made in national or regional democracies often affect people outside the constituency who, by definition, cannot vote. By contrast, in a cosmopolitan democracy, the people who are affected by decisions also have a say in them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/CD_and_critics_A_review.pdf|title=Article on Cosmopolitan democracy by Daniele Archibugi|access-date=22 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220629/http://www.danielearchibugi.org/downloads/papers/CD_and_critics_A_review.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2011}}</ref>

According to its supporters, any attempt to solve global problems is undemocratic without some form of cosmopolitan democracy. The general principle of cosmopolitan democracy is to expand some or all of the values and norms of democracy, including the rule of law; the non-violent resolution of conflicts; and equality among citizens, beyond the limits of the state. To be fully implemented, this would require reforming existing [[international organisations]], e.g., the [[United Nations]], as well as the creation of new institutions such as a [[World Parliament]], which ideally would enhance public control over, and accountability in, international politics.

Cosmopolitan democracy has been promoted, among others, by physicist Albert Einstein,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/ws1997-letter-einstein.html|title=letter by Einstein – "To the General Assembly of the United Nations"|access-date=2 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510174259/http://neutrino.aquaphoenix.com/un-esa/ws1997-letter-einstein.html|archive-date=10 May 2013|url-status=dead}}, first published in United Nations World New York, October 1947, pp. 13–14</ref> writer Kurt Vonnegut, columnist [[George Monbiot]], and professors [[David Held]] and [[Daniele Archibugi]].<ref>Daniele Archibugi & David Held, eds., ''Cosmopolitan Democracy. An Agenda for a New World Order'', Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995; David Held, ''Democracy and the Global Order'', Polity Press, Cambridge, 1995, Daniele Archibugi, [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8737.html ''The Global Commonwealth of Citizens. Toward Cosmopolitan Democracy''], Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2008</ref> The creation of the [[International Criminal Court]] in 2003 was seen as a major step forward by many supporters of this type of cosmopolitan democracy.

====Creative====
{{Main|Creative democracy}}

Creative democracy is advocated by American philosopher [[John Dewey]]. The main idea about creative democracy is that democracy encourages individual capacity building and the interaction among the society. Dewey argues that democracy is a way of life in his work of "Creative Democracy: The Task Before Us"<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/dewey/dewey_creative_democracy.pdf|title=Creative Democracy – The Task Before Us|access-date=12 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212175652/http://pages.uoregon.edu/koopman/courses_readings/dewey/dewey_creative_democracy.pdf|archive-date=12 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> and an experience built on faith in human nature, faith in human beings, and faith in working with others. Democracy, in Dewey's view, is a [[Morality|moral ideal]] requiring actual effort and work by people; it is not an institutional concept that exists outside of ourselves. "The task of democracy", Dewey concludes, "is forever that of creation of a freer and more humane experience in which all share and to which all contribute".

====Guided====
{{Main|Guided democracy}}
[[File:Democracy claims.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|'''Green:''' countries that claim to be a democracy '''Red:''' countries that do not claim to be democratic (only [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Oman]], the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], [[Qatar]], [[Brunei]], [[Afghanistan]], and the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] do not claim to be democratic as of 2022){{citation needed|date=February 2024}}]]

Guided democracy is a form of democracy that incorporates regular popular elections, but which often carefully "guides" the choices offered to the electorate in a manner that may reduce the ability of the electorate to truly determine the type of government exercised over them. Such democracies typically have only one central authority which is often not subject to meaningful public review by any other governmental authority. Russian-style democracy has often been referred to as a "guided democracy".<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/17149/pdf|doi=10.1353/jod.2001.0063|title=From Democratization to &quot;Guided Democracy&quot|year=2001|last1=Brown|first1=Archie|journal=Journal of Democracy|volume=12|issue=4|pages=35–41|s2cid=201790528}}</ref> Russian politicians have referred to their government as having only one center of power/ authority, as opposed to most other forms of democracy which usually attempt to incorporate two or more naturally competing sources of authority within the same government.<ref>[http://www.russialist.org/archives/2009-35-32.php Putin's Rule: Its Main Features and the Current Diarchy] Johnson's [[Russia]] List. By Peter Reddaway. 18 February 2009. Downloaded 28 April 2017.</ref>