Editing Gender equality (section)

===Economy and public policy===
====Economic empowerment of women====
{{Main|Women in the workforce|Female economic activity}}[[File:EU 27 Gender Pay Gap 2014.png|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries|[[Gender pay gap]] in average gross hourly earnings in the [[European Union|EU]] member states, according to [[Eurostat]] 2014<ref name="EC stats">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|title=The situation in the EU|publisher=[[European Commission]]|access-date=July 12, 2011|archive-date=December 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219234951/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>{{failed verification|date=March 2018}}]]
Promoting gender equality is seen as an encouragement to greater [[Prosperity|economic prosperity]].<ref name="Smart" />{{Refn|For example, nations of the [[Arab world]] that deny equality of opportunity to women were warned in a 2008 [[United Nations]]-sponsored report that this disempowerment is a critical factor crippling these nations' return to the first rank of global leaders in commerce, [[Education|learning]], and [[culture]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|title=Gender equality in Arab world critical for progress and prosperity, UN report warns|date=2006-12-07|website=UN News Service Section|language=en|access-date=2017-03-28|archive-date=2017-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329142215/http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=20879#.WNpwsRLyub8|url-status=live}}</ref> That is, Western bodies are less likely to conduct commerce with nations in the Middle East that retain culturally accepted attitudes towards the status and function of women in their society in an effort to [[cultural globalization|force them to change their beliefs]] in the face of relatively underdeveloped economies.|group=lower-roman}} [[Female economic activity]] is a common measure of gender equality in an economy.{{Refn|[[UN Women]] states that: "Investing in women's economic empowerment sets a direct path towards gender equality, poverty eradication and inclusive economic growth."<ref name="unwomen.org">{{cite news|url=http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|title=What we do: Economic empowerment: UN Women – Headquarters|newspaper=Оон-Женщины|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=25 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825221217/http://www.unwomen.org/ru/what-we-do/economic-empowerment|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}
[[File:Why diversity is important in local government.webm|thumb|A government video: Why substantive equality is important in local government]]

Gender discrimination often results in women obtaining low-wage jobs and being disproportionately affected by poverty, discrimination and exploitation.<ref name="unwomen.org" />{{Refn|The [[UN Population Fund]] says that, "Six out of 10 of the world's poorest people are women. Economic disparities persist partly because much of the unpaid work within families and communities falls on the shoulders of women, and because women continue to face discrimination in the economic sphere."<ref name="unfpa.org1" />|group=lower-roman}} A growing body of research documents what works to economically empower women, from providing access to formal financial services to training on agricultural and business management practices, though more research is needed across a variety of contexts to confirm the effectiveness of these interventions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|title=Roadmap for Promoting Women's Economic Empowerment|website=Womeneconroadmap.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=7 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007115204/http://www.womeneconroadmap.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gender biases also exist in product and service provision.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last=Harvard Law Review Association|title=Civil rights – gender discrimination: California prohibits gender-based pricing|date=May 1996}}</ref> The term "Women's Tax", also known as "[[Pink tax|Pink Tax]]", refers to gendered pricing in which products or services marketed to women are more expensive than similar products marketed to men. [[Gender-based price discrimination]] involves companies selling almost identical units of the same product or service at comparatively different prices, as determined by the target market. Studies have found that women pay about $1,400 a year more than men due to gendered discriminatory pricing. Although the "pink tax" of different goods and services is not uniform, overall women pay more for commodities that result in visual evidence of feminine body image.<ref>{{Cite journal|last2=Grauerholz|first2=Liz|last3=Weichsel|first3=Rebecca|last4=Guittar|first4=Nicholas A.|year=2011|title=The Cost of Doing Femininity: Gendered Disparities in Pricing of Personal Care Products and Services|journal=Gender Issues|volume=28|issue=4|pages=175–191|doi=10.1007/s12147-011-9106-3|first1=Megan|last1=Duesterhaus|s2cid=145812818}}</ref>{{Refn|For example, studies have shown that women are charged more for services especially tailoring, hair cutting and laundering.<ref name=":0" />|group=lower-roman}}

In addition, gender wage gap is a phenomenon of gender biases. That means women do the same job or work with their male counterpart, but they could not receive the same salary or opportunity at workforce.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Across the [[European Union]], for example, since women continue to hold lower-paying jobs, they earn 13% less than men on average. According to European Quality of Life Survey and European Working Conditions Survey data, women in the European Union work more hours but for less pay. Adult men (including the retired) work an average of 23 hours per week, compared to 15 hours for women.

Women continue to earn around 25% less than males. Almost a billion women are unable to obtain loans to establish a company or create a bank account in order to save money.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Bridging the Gender Gap in Access to Finance |url=https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/NEWS_EXT_CONTENT/IFC_External_Corporate_Site/News+and+Events/News/Bridging+the+Gender+Gap+in+Access+to+Finance |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=www.ifc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Expanding Women's Access to Financial Services |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2013/04/01/banking-on-women-extending-womens-access-to-financial-services |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref> Increasing women's equality in banking and the workplace might boost the global economy by up to $28 trillion by 2025.<ref name=":03"/><ref name=":02" /><ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Feloni |first=Richard |date=2019-03-08 |title=If we closed the gender gap by 2025, the global economy could see a $28 trillion windfall |url=https://www.businessinsider.nl/closing-gender-gap-could-add-as-much-as-28-trillion-to-global-economy-2019-3/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=Business Insider Nederland |language=nl}}</ref> Funding is becoming more available for this, for example with the European Investment Bank establishing the SheInvest program in 2020 with the goal of raising €1 billion in investments to assist women in obtaining loans and running enterprises across Africa.<ref name=":03">{{Cite web |title=Women's solutions stories create a world where everyone thrives |url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/women-solutions-stories |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: EIB expands SheInvest initiative and strengthens cooperation with Development Bank of Rwanda |url=https://www.eib.org/en/press/all/2022-411-boosting-gender-equality-around-the-world-eib-expands-sheinvest-initiative-and-strengthens-cooperation-with-development-bank-of-rwanda |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=European Investment Bank |language=en}}</ref>

The European Investment Bank funded an additional €2 billion in gender-lens investment in Africa, Asia, and Latin America at the Finance in Common Summit at the end of 2022.<ref name=":03" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Boosting gender equality around the world: European Investment Bank expands SheInvest initiative.... |url=https://www.businessghana.com/ |access-date=2023-02-28 |website=BusinessGhana}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://financeincommon.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Finance%20in%20Common%20Progress%20Report%202022.pdf|title=Finance in Common FICS Progress Report}}</ref>

====Gendered arrangements of work and care====
{{Main|Women's work|Gender role}}
Since the 1950s, social scientists as well as feminists have increasingly criticized gendered arrangements of work and care and the male breadwinner role. Policies are increasingly targeting men as fathers as a tool of changing gender relations.<ref>{{cite journal|year=2014|title=Changing men, changing times; fathers and sons from an experimental gender equality study|url=http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|journal=[[The Sociological Review]]|volume=62|issue=2|pages=295–315|doi=10.1111/1467-954X.12156|last1=Bjørnholt|first1=M.|s2cid=143048732|author-link1=Margunn Bjørnholt|access-date=2014-09-11|archive-date=2018-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021020857/http://www.margunnbjornholt.no/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Changing-men-changing-times-fathers-and-sons-from-an-experimental-gender-equality-study.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Shared earning/shared parenting marriage]], that is, a relationship where the partners collaborate at sharing their responsibilities inside and outside of the home, is often encouraged in Western countries.<ref name="Vachon">{{cite book|title=Equally Shared Parenting|last=Vachon|first=Marc and Amy|publisher=Perigree Trade|year=2010|isbn=978-0-399-53651-9|location=United States|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/equallysharedpar0000vach}}; {{cite book|title=Halving It All: How Equally Shared Parenting Works|url=https://archive.org/details/halvingitallhowe00deut|url-access=registration|author-link1=Francine Deutsch|last=Deutsch|first=Francine|date=April 2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00209-8}}; {{cite book|title=Love Between Equals: How Peer Marriage Really Works|last=Schwartz|first=Pepper|date=September 1995|publisher=Touchstone|isbn=978-0-02-874061-4}}</ref>

Western countries with a strong emphasis on women fulfilling the role of homemakers, rather than a professional role, include parts of German speaking Europe (i.e. parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland); as well as the Netherlands and Ireland.{{Refn|In 2011, [[Jose Manuel Barroso]], then president of the [[European Commission]], stated "Germany, but also Austria and the Netherlands, should look at the example of the northern countries [...] that means removing obstacles for women, older workers, foreigners and low-skilled job-seekers to get into the workforce".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |title=Germany's persistently low birthrate gets marginal boost |date=18 August 2011 |website=Deutsche Welle |access-date=14 November 2017 |archive-date=15 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082907/http://www.dw.com/en/germanys-persistently-low-birthrate-gets-marginal-boost/a-15325123-0 |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|The Netherlands and Ireland are among the last Western countries to accept women as professionals; despite the Netherlands having an image as progressive on gender issues, women in the Netherlands work less in paid employment than women in other comparable Western countries. In the early 1980s, the Commission of the [[European Communities]] report ''Women in the European Community'', found that the Netherlands and Ireland had the lowest labour participation of married women and the most public disapproval of it.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |quote=It is in the Netherlands (17.6%) and in Ireland (13.6%) that we see the smallest numbers of married women working and the least acceptance of this phenomenon by the general public |page=14 |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |title=Women in the European Community |date=1984 |access-date=2016-04-08 |archive-date=2015-11-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014109/http://aei.pitt.edu/4560/1/4560.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In Ireland, until 1973, there was a [[marriage bar]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|title=Martindale Center – Lehigh Business|website=Martindale.cc.lehigh.edu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=8 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008154655/https://martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/sites/martindale.cc.lehigh.edu/files/Patterson.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In the Netherlands, from the 1990s onwards, the numbers of women entering the workplace have increased, but with most of the women [[part time job|working part time]]. As of 2014, the Netherlands and Switzerland were the only OECD members where most employed women worked part-time,<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |title=LMF1.6: Gender differences in employment Outcomes |website=OECD - Social Policy Division |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304071301/http://www.oecd.org/els/soc/LMF_1_6_Gender_differences_in_employment_outcomes.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while in the United Kingdom, women made up two-thirds of workers on long term sick leave, despite making up only half of the workforce and even after excluding maternity leave.<ref group=upper-roman>{{Cite news|title=Women make up two-thirds of workers on long-term sick leave|last=Watts|first=Joseph|date=11 February 2014|work=[[London Evening Standard]]|page=10}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the computer technology world of [[Silicon Valley]] in the United States, ''[[New York Times]]'' reporter [[Nellie Bowles]] has covered harassment and bias against women as well as a backlash against female equality.<ref name=twsNYTimes11>{{cite news |first=Nellie |last=Bowles |date=September 23, 2017 |website=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |title=Push for Gender Equality in Tech? Some Men Say It's Gone Too Far |quote=...Silicon Valley has for years accommodated a fringe element of men who say women are ruining the tech world.... backlash against the women in technology movement ... surveys show there is no denying the travails women face in the male-dominated industry ... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923161814/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/09/23/technology/silicon-valley-men-backlash-gender-scandals.html |archive-date=September 23, 2017}}</ref><ref name=twsWillamette101>{{cite web |first=Thacher |last=Schmid |date=March 12, 2018 |website=Willamette Week |url=http://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |title=While Startups Increasingly Move to Portland, a New York Times Reporter Warns That There's a "Gender Problem" in Tech |quote=...Bowles has written a number of groundbreaking stories on the "gender problem" in tech, including a profile of a "contrarian" fringe element of men leading a backlash against women asserting their rights.... |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=March 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312095939/https://www.wweek.com/technology/2018/03/12/while-startups-increasingly-move-to-portland-a-new-york-times-reporter-warns-that-theres-a-gender-problem-in-tech/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Females are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) at all levels of society. Fewer females are completing STEM school subjects, graduating with STEM degrees, being employed as STEM professionals, and holding senior leadership and academic positions in STEM. This problem is exacerbated by the gender pay gap; family role expectations; lack of visible role models or mentors; discrimination and harassment; and bias in hiring and promotion practices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=Jodie |last2=Johnson |first2=Rebecca N. |last3=Wilson-Wilde |first3=Linzi |date=2019-07-29 |title=Gender equity: how do the forensic sciences fare? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences |language=en |volume=51 |issue=sup1 |pages=S263–S267 |doi=10.1080/00450618.2019.1568556 |s2cid=86587238 |issn=0045-0618|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A key issue towards insuring gender equality in the workplace is the respecting of [[maternity rights]] and [[reproductive rights]] of women.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/Handlers/Download.ashx?IDMF=a40b96ed-8bf4-4db1-9ceb-71ca2d6fada4 |title=Modern workplaces, maternity rights, and gender equality |access-date=2016-04-26 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509134200/http://www.fawcettsociety.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Modern-Workplaces-Policy-Position-November-2012.pdf |archive-date=2016-05-09 |publisher = Fawcett Society |date = November 2012 }}</ref> Different countries have different rules regarding [[maternity leave]], paternity leave and [[parental leave]].{{Refn|In the [[European Union]] (EU) the policies vary significantly by country, but the EU members must abide by the minimum standards of the [[Pregnant Workers Directive]] and [[Parental Leave Directive]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|title=Professional, private and family life – European Commission|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122183759/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/rights/work-life-balance/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Another important issue is ensuring that employed women are not ''[[de jure]]'' or ''[[de facto]]'' prevented from having a child.{{Refn|For example, some countries have enacted legislation explicitly outlawing or restricting what they view as abusive clauses in [[employment contract]]s regarding reproductive rights (such as clauses which stipulate that a woman cannot get pregnant during a specified time) rendering such contracts [[void (law)|void]] or [[voidable]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |title=Private Law and Fundamental Rights: a sceptical view |last=Smits |first=Jan |date=October 2006 |publisher=University of Maastricht |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509070119/http://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/web/file?uuid=d01c336a-95bd-4b7d-b291-59623c7918be&owner=8318a38b-02db-4343-8ee4-c81474278688 |archive-date=May 9, 2016}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, employers ask women to sign formal or informal documents stipulating that they will not get pregnant or face legal punishment.<ref>For example, {{cite web|title=Law n. 202/2002, Art. 10 (4) and Art. 37|url=http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|website=Romanian Law Online|language=ro|access-date=2016-04-26|archive-date=2016-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509000153/http://www.dreptonline.ro/legislatie/legea_egalitatii_sanse_femei.php|url-status=live}}</ref> Women often face severe violations of their reproductive rights at the hands of their employers; and the [[International Labour Organization]] classifies [[forced abortion]] coerced by the employer as [[Exploitation of labour|labour exploitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|title=Details of indicators for labour exploitation|website=Ilo.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153412/http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_norm/@declaration/documents/publication/wcms_105035.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Refn|Being the victim of a forced abortion compelled by the employer was ruled a ground of obtaining [[political asylum]] in the US.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|title=US asylum rule on forced abortion|website=News.bbc.co.uk|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115022913/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6729339.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Other abuses include routine [[virginity test]]s of unmarried employed women.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|title=HRW calls on Indonesia to scrap 'virginity tests' for female police|website=Dw.com|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115082713/http://www.dw.com/en/hrw-calls-on-indonesia-to-scrap-virginity-tests-for-female-police/a-18082547|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|title=THE CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN (CEDAW)|website=Igfm-muenchen.de|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=20 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020153408/http://www.igfm-muenchen.de/tibet/Phayul/2006/TWA-CEDAWReport_Aug2006_form.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{See also|Parental leave#Effects on gender equality|l1=Effect of parental leave policies on gender equality}}

====Gendered arrangements of conscription====
{{Main|Conscription#Drafting of women|Conscription and sexism}}
Military and conscription has been historically generally gender inequal.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Michalowski|first1=Helen|title=Five feminist principles and the draft|journal=Resistance News|date=May 1982|issue=8|page=2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Neudel|first1=Marian Henriquez|title=Feminism and the Draft|journal=Resistance News|date=July 1983|issue=13|page=7}}</ref> Increasingly women are [[Social exclusion#Social inclusion|included]] in the military.<ref name=":0b">{{Cite book|title=The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys|last=Benatar|first=David|publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-470-67451-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vdIrkGLHLPsC|author-link=David Benatar|access-date=April 26, 2015|date=May 15, 2012}}</ref> Currently only a few countries in the world, including Norway and Sweden, have gender-equal formal rules for conscription.<ref name=":4b">{{Cite journal|last1=Persson|first1=Alma|last2=Sundevall|first2=Fia|date=2019-03-22|title=Conscripting women: gender, soldiering, and military service in Sweden 1965–2018|journal=Women's History Review|volume=28|issue=7|pages=1039–1056|doi=10.1080/09612025.2019.1596542|issn=0961-2025|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Gender Equality Index|Gender Equality Indices]] have been criticized for neglecting conscription as a source of formal gender inequality.<ref name="h625">{{cite journal | last1=Heikkilä | first1=Jussi | last2=Laukkanen | first2=Ina | title=Gender-specific Call of Duty: A Note on the Neglect of Conscription in Gender Equality Indices | journal=Defence and Peace Economics | volume=33 | issue=5 | date=4 July 2022 | issn=1024-2694 | doi=10.1080/10242694.2020.1844400 | pages=603–615| arxiv=2201.09270 }}</ref>

====Freedom of movement====
{{Further|Freedom of movement}}
[[File:Group of Women Wearing Burkas.jpg|thumb|Women in [[Afghanistan]] wearing [[burqa]]s. Some clothes that women are required to wear, by law or custom, can restrict their movements.]]
The degree to which women can participate (in law and in practice) in public life varies by culture and socioeconomic characteristics. [[Seclusion]] of women within the home was a common practice among the [[upper classes]] of many societies, and this still remains the case today in some societies. Before the 20th century it was also common in parts of Southern Europe, such as much of Spain.<ref>''Liberating Women's History:Theoretical and Critical Essays'', edited by Berenice A. Carroll, pp. 161–2</ref>

Women's [[freedom of movement]] continues to be legally restricted in some parts of the world. This restriction is often due to [[marriage laws]].{{Refn|For instance, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations stipulate that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|title=Yemen's Dark Side: Discrimination and violence against women and girls.|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326165645/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In some countries, women must legally be accompanied by their male guardians (such as the husband or male relative) when they leave home.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|title=Why can't women drive in Saudi Arabia?|publisher=BBC|access-date=14 June 2015|date=27 October 2013|archive-date=5 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171105205216/http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/24691034|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) states at Article 15 (4) that:
{{Blockquote|4. States Parties shall accord to men and women the same rights with regard to the law relating to the movement of persons and the freedom to choose their residence and domicile.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |title=CEDAW 29th Session 30 June to 25 July 2003 |access-date=14 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406123853/http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm |archive-date=April 6, 2011 }}</ref>}}

In addition to laws, women's freedom of movement is also restricted by social and religious norms.{{Refn|For example, [[purdah]], a religious and social practice of female seclusion prevalent among some Muslim communities in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] as well as upper-caste Hindus in [[North India|Northern India]], such as the [[Rajputs]], which often leads to the minimizing of the movement of women in public spaces and restrictions on their social and professional interactions;<ref name=Papanek group=upper-roman>{{cite journal | last1 = Papanek | first1 = Hanna | year = 1973 | title = Purdah: Separate Worlds and Symbolic Shelter | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 15 | issue = 3| pages = 289–325 | doi = 10.1017/S001041750000712X | s2cid = 144508005 }}</ref> or [[namus]], a cultural concept strongly related to [[family honor]].|group=lower-roman}} Restrictions on freedom of movement also exist due to traditional practices such as [[Baad (practice)|baad]], [[Swara (custom)|swara]], or [[Vani (custom)|vani]].{{Refn|Common especially among [[Pashtun tribes]] in Pakistan and Afghanistan, whereby a girl is given from one family to another (often though a marriage), in order to settle the disputes and feuds between the families. The girl, who now belongs to the second family, has very little autonomy and freedom, her role being to serve the new family.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|title=Afghan Girls Suffer for Sins of Male Relatives|author=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|website=Refworld|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2015-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018234916/http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?docid=49dc4b201c|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|title=Vani: Pain of child marriage in our society|website=News Pakistan|date=2011-10-26|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2014-06-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140603165151/http://www.newspakistan.pk/2011/10/26/vani-pain-of-child-marriage-in-our-society/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref group=upper-roman>{{cite journal |last1=Nasrullah |first1=M. |last2=Muazzam |first2=S. |last3=Bhutta |first3=Z. A. |last4=Raj |first4=A. |year=2013 |title=Girl Child Marriage and Its Effect on Fertility in Pakistan: Findings from Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey, 2006–2007 |journal=Maternal and Child Health Journal |pages=1–10 }}</ref><ref name=hk2004 group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |title=Vani a social evil |first1=Anwar |last1=Hashmi |first2=Rifat |last2=Koukab |website=The Fact |date=July 2004 |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117192829/http://fact.com.pk/archives/july/feng/vani.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Ahsan, I. (2009). PANCHAYATS AND JIRGAS (LOK ADALATS): Alternative Dispute Resolution System in Pakistan. Strengthening Governance Through Access To Justice</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

====Girls' access to education====
{{Main|Female education|Gender and education}}
In many parts of the world, girls' access to education is very restricted. In developing parts of the world women are often denied opportunities for education as girls and women face many obstacles. These include: early and forced marriages; early pregnancy; prejudice based on gender stereotypes at home, at school and in the community; violence on the way to school, or in and around schools; long distances to schools; vulnerability to the HIV epidemic; school fees, which often lead to parents sending only their sons to school; lack of gender sensitive approaches and materials in classrooms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|title=Global issues affecting women and girls |website=National Union of Teachers|access-date=14 June 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429020903/http://www.teachers.org.uk/node/12978|archive-date=29 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|title=Global Campaign For Education United States Chapter|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916235149/http://campaignforeducationusa.org/obstacles-to-education-for-girls-and-women|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|title=Progress and Obstacles to Girls' Education in Africa|website=Plan International|date=16 July 2015|access-date=21 June 2014|archive-date=29 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729202549/http://plan-international.org/files/Africa/progress-and-obstacles-to-girls-education-in-africa|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[OHCHR]], there have been multiple attacks on schools worldwide during the period 2009–2014 with "a number of these attacks being specifically directed at girls, parents and teachers advocating for gender equality in education".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|title=Attacks against girls' education occurring with "increasing regularity" – UN human rights report|date=9 February 2015|website=Ohchr.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-03-27|archive-date=2018-08-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113244/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15555&LangID=E|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[United Nations Population Fund]] says:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|title=Gender equality|website=[[United Nations Population Fund]]|access-date=17 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520233303/https://www.unfpa.org/gender-equality|archive-date=20 May 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|About two thirds of the world's [[Gender disparities in literacy|illiterate]] adults are women. Lack of an education severely restricts a woman's access to information and opportunities. Conversely, increasing women's and girls' educational attainment benefits both individuals and future generations. Higher levels of women's education are strongly associated with lower infant mortality and lower fertility, as well as better outcomes for their children.}}According to [[UNESCO]], extreme exclusion still characterizes some countries, and pockets of exclusion remain in others. In Afghanistan, where girls have been banned again from secondary schools, there had been rapid progress in completion rates. For example, girls' primary completion increased from 8% in 2000 to 56% in 2020, although the gender gap remained at 20 percentage points. In some provinces, such as Uruzgan, just 1% of girls completed primary in 2015. A 20 percentage point gender gap in access to upper secondary education is also observed in sub-Saharan African countries, including Chad and Guinea.<ref>Global Education Monitoring Report Team (2022). [https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381329.locale=en ''Global education monitoring report 2022: gender report, deepening the debate on those still left behind''.] UNESCO. {{ISBN|978-92-3-100524-4}}.</ref>

====Political participation of women====
{{Main|Women in government}}

[[File:Countries with female Heads of State and Government.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|Map showing countries which since independence have had (counting [[Governor-General|Governors-General]] as heads of state, but excluding monarchs):
{{legend|#ffeda6|Female head of government{{Efn|name="Peru"}}}}
{{legend|#91c3ff|Female head of state{{Efn|name="Andorra"}}}}
{{legend|#91eb91|Female head of state/government (combined)}}
{{legend|#BB71BB|Female head of state and female head of government}}
Three former sovereign states ([[Sabine Bergmann-Pohl|East Germany]], [[Khertek Anchimaa-Toka|Tannu Tuva]], and [[Milka Planinc|Yugoslavia]]) have also had a female Head of State or Head of Government]] [[File:Map3.8Government Participation by Women compressed.jpg|right|thumb|A world map showing countries governmental participation by women, 2010]]

Women are underrepresented in most countries' National Parliaments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|title=Women in Parliaments: World and Regional Averages|website=Ipu.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=30 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070330191653/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2011 UN General Assembly resolution on women's political participation called for female participation in politics, and expressed concern about the fact that "women in every part of the world continue to be largely marginalized from the political sphere".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |title=Women and Political Participation: resolution |website=United Nations |access-date=14 November 2017 |date=March 19, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303105958/http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/294223 |archive-date=3 March 2018}}</ref>{{Refn|The Council of Europe states that:<ref name="coe.int">{{cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|title=Gender Equality Strategy 2014–2017|website=Council of Europe|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=16 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516223227/https://www.coe.int/en/web/genderequality/gender-equality-strategy|url-status=live}}</ref>
:"Pluralist democracy requires balanced participation of women and men in political and public decision-making. Council of Europe standards provide clear guidance on how to achieve this."|group=lower-roman}} Only 22 percent of parliamentarians globally are women and therefore, men continue to occupy most positions of political and legal authority.<ref name="unfpa.org1" /> As of November 2014, women accounted for 28% of members of the single or lower houses of parliaments in the [[European Union]] member states.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|title=Gender balance in decision-making positions|website=Ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117163226/http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-decision-making/index_en.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In some Western countries{{Which|date=December 2023}} women have only recently{{When|date=December 2023}} [[Women's suffrage|obtained the right to vote]].{{Refn|Notably in [[Switzerland]], where women gained the right to vote in federal elections in 1971;<ref name="switzerland-chronology" group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology |publisher=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch |access-date=2011-01-08 |archive-date=2019-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html |url-status=live }}</ref> but in the canton of [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] women obtained the right to vote on local issues only in 1991, when the canton was forced to do so by the [[Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland]].<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |title=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), issued on 14 January 2003 |publisher=Un.org |access-date=2011-09-02 |archive-date=2013-06-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130618092604/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

In 2015, 61.3% of [[Rwanda]]'s [[Lower house|Lower House]] of Parliament were women, the highest proportion anywhere in the world, but worldwide that was one of only two such bodies where women were in the majority, the other being [[Bolivia]]'s Lower House of Parliament.<ref name=IPU2015a>{{cite web |author=Inter-Parliamentary Union |date=1 August 2015 |title=Women in national parliaments |author-link=Inter-Parliamentary Union |url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> (See also [[Gender equality in Rwanda]]).

====Marriage, divorce and property laws and regulations====
Equal rights for women in marriage, divorce, and property/land ownership and inheritance are essential for gender equality. The Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) has called for the end of discriminatory [[family law]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|title=Equality in family relations: recognizing women's rights to property|website=Ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113353/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Equalityinfamilyrelationsrecognizingwomensrightstoproperty.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2013, UN Women stated that "While at least 115 countries recognize equal land rights for women and men, effective implementation remains a major challenge".<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|title = Women's land rights are human rights, says new UN report|date = 11 November 2013|newspaper = Un Women – Headquarters|access-date = 2 March 2018|archive-date = 22 December 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222072443/http://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2013/11/womens-land-rights-are-human-rights-says-new-un-report|url-status = live}}</ref>

The legal and social treatment of married women has been often discussed as a political issue from the 19th century onwards.{{Refn|[[John Stuart Mill]], in ''[[The Subjection of Women]]'' (1869) compared marriage to [[slavery]] and wrote that: "The law of servitude in marriage is a monstrous contradiction to all the principles of the modern world, and to all the experience through which those principles have been slowly and painfully worked out."<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|title=The Subjection of Women by John Stuart Mill|website=Marxists.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=18 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918233515/https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mill-john-stuart/1869/subjection-women/ch04.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In 1957, James Everett, then Minister for Justice in Ireland, stated: "The progress of organised society is judged by the status occupied by married women".<ref name=Oireachtas group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |title= Married Women's Status Bill, 1956—Second Stage: Minister for Justice (Mr. Everett) |website= [[Houses of the Oireachtas|Oireachtas]] |date= 16 January 1957 |access-date= 6 September 2015 |archive-date= 26 September 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926014352/http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/seanad1957011600008?opendocument |url-status= live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} Until the 1970s, legal subordination of married women was common across European countries, through [[marriage laws]] giving legal authority to the husband, as well as through [[marriage bar]]s.{{Refn|In France, married women obtained the right to work without their husband's consent in 1965;<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web |url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |title=Modern & Contemporary France: Women in France |website=Routledge |access-date=April 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref> while the paternal authority of a man over his family was ended in 1970 (before that parental responsibilities belonged solely to the father who made all legal decisions concerning the children); and a new reform in 1985 abolished the stipulation that the father had the sole power to administer the children's property.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|title=National Report: France|website=Ceflonline.net|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=11 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140811145534/http://ceflonline.net/wp-content/uploads/France-Parental-Responsibilities.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}{{Refn|In [[Austria]], the marriage law was overhauled between 1975 and 1983, abolishing the restrictions on married women's right to work outside the home, providing for equality between spouses, and for joint ownership of property and assets.<ref group=upper-roman>''Women and Politics in Contemporary Ireland: From the Margins to the Mainstream'', by Yvonne Galligan, pp.90</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In 1978, the [[Council of Europe]] passed the ''Resolution (78) 37 on equality of spouses in civil law''.<ref>{{cite web|title=RESOLUTION (78) 37 ON EQUALITY OF SPOUSES IN CIVIL LAW|url=https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|publisher=Council of Europe|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121025014/https://wcd.coe.int/com.instranet.InstraServlet?command=com.instranet.CmdBlobGet&InstranetImage=596422&SecMode=1&DocId=662346&Usage=2|archive-date=21 January 2016|date=27 September 1978}}</ref> [[Switzerland]] was one of the last countries in Europe to establish gender equality in marriage, in this country married women's rights were severely restricted until 1988, when legal reforms providing for gender equality in marriage, abolishing the legal authority of the husband, come into force (these reforms had been approved in 1985 by voters in a [[Voting in Switzerland|referendum]], who narrowly voted in favor with 54.7% of voters approving).<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|title=SWISS GRANT WOMEN EQUAL MARRIAGE RIGHTS|date=23 September 1985|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Times|first1=Special to the New York|access-date=8 February 2017|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111232657/https://www.nytimes.com/1985/09/23/world/swiss-grant-women-equal-marriage-rights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|title=Switzerland Profile: Timeline|website=BBC News|date=21 December 2017|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=17 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617053429/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17988450|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto3">{{cite web|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|title=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|author=Markus G. Jud|website=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=21 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121120734/http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="auto1"/> In the [[Netherlands]], it was only in 1984 that full legal equality between husband and wife was achieved: prior to 1984 the law stipulated that the husband's opinion prevailed over the wife's regarding issues such as decisions on children's education and the domicile of the family.<ref>''The Economics of Imperfect Labor Markets: Second Edition'', by Tito Boeri, Jan van Ours, pp. 105</ref><ref>{{cite web|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170906070337/https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e |archive-date = 6 September 2017| title = Dutch gender and LGBT-equality policy 2013–2016|url = https://rm.coe.int/168045ae0e}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|title=2015 Review Report of the Netherlands Government in the context of the twentieth anniversary of the Fourth World Conference on Women and the adoption of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action|website=Unece.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=5 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005144755/http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/Gender/publication/Netherlands_2015_Review_BPFA_Report_of_the_Netherlands_Government.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[United States]], a wife's legal subordination to her husband was fully ended by the case of ''[[Kirchberg v. Feenstra]]'', {{Ussc|450|455|1981|el=no}}, a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which the Court held a [[Louisiana]] [[Head and Master law]], which gave sole control of marital property to the husband, unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|title=Kirchberg v. Feenstra :: 450 U.S. 455 (1981) :: Justia U.S. Supreme Court Center|website=Justia Law|access-date=2015-10-10|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130159/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/455/|url-status=live}}</ref>

There have been and sometimes continue to be unequal treatment of married women in various aspects of everyday life. For example, in [[Australia]], until 1983 a husband had to authorize an application for an [[Australian passport]] for a married woman.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171552/http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|title=The History of Passports in Australia|archive-date=14 June 2006|access-date=14 November 2017}}</ref> Other practices have included, and in many countries continue to include, a requirement for a husband's consent for an application for bank loans and credit cards by a married woman, as well as restrictions on the wife's [[reproductive rights]], such as a requirement that the husband consents to the wife's acquiring [[contraception]] or having an [[abortion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|title=Women's Lives Women's Rights: Campaigning for maternal health and sexual and reproductive rights.|website=Amnesty.ca|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=26 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626165326/http://www.amnesty.ca/sites/default/files/womens_lives_womens_rights_campaigning.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|title=Left without a choice : Barriers to reproductive health in Indonesia|website=2.ohchr.org|access-date=14 November 2017|archive-date=23 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180423125558/http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/ngos/AmnestyInternational_for_PSWG_en_Indonesia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In some places, although the law itself no longer requires the consent of the husband for various actions taken by the wife, the practice continues ''[[de facto]]'', with the authorization of the husband being asked in practice.<ref>{{cite book|title = Education For Women|first =D. Bhaskara|last = Rao|page = 161|date = 2004|publisher = Discovery Publishing House|isbn=978-81-7141-873-2}}</ref>

Although [[dowry]] is today mainly associated with [[South Asia]], the practice has been common until the mid-20th century in parts of [[Southeast Europe]].{{Refn|For example, in [[Greece]] dowry was removed from [[family law]] only in 1983 through legal changes which reformed marriage law and provided gender equality in marriage.<ref group=upper-roman>Demos, Vasilikie. (2007) "The Intersection of Gender, Class and Nationality and the Agency of Kytherian Greek Women." Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association. August 11.</ref> These changes also dealt with the practice of women [[Married and maiden names|changing their surnames to that of the husbands]] upon getting married, a practice which has been outlawed or restricted in some jurisdictions, because it is seen as contrary to women's rights. As such, women in Greece are required to ''keep'' their birth names for their whole life.<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |title=Should women change their names after marriage? Ask a Greek woman |first=Heather |last=Long |newspaper=The Guardian |date=2013-10-06 |access-date=2016-12-11 |archive-date=2013-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006115711/http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/oct/06/women-change-name-after-marriage-greece |url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}

Laws regulating marriage and divorce continue to discriminate against women in many countries.{{Refn|For example, in [[Yemen]], marriage regulations state that a wife must obey her husband and must not leave home without his permission.<ref name="www2.ohchr.org" group=upper-roman />|group=lower-roman}} In [[Iraq]] husbands have a legal right to "punish" their wives, with paragraph 41 of the criminal code stating that there is no crime if an act is committed while exercising a legal right.{{Refn|Examples of legal rights include: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |title=The Penal-Code with Amendments |access-date=April 25, 2021 |date=1969 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf |archive-date=October 21, 2012 }}</ref>|group=lower-roman}} In the 1990s and the 21st century there has been progress in many countries in Africa: for instance in Namibia the [[marital power]] of the husband was abolished in 1996 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''; in Botswana it was abolished in 2004 by the ''Abolition of Marital Power Act''; and in Lesotho it was abolished in 2006 by the ''Married Persons Equality Act''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/lesotho.htm |title=The Law and Legal Research in Lesotho |author=Buhle Angelo Dube |date=February 2008 |access-date=2010-07-04 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620014058/http://nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Lesotho.htm |archive-date=2010-06-20 }}</ref> Violence against a wife continues to be seen as legally acceptable in some countries; for instance in 2010, the [[United Arab Emirates]] Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left|website=CNN|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=15 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171115015526/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/meast/10/19/uae.court.ruling/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD|url-status=live}}</ref> The criminalization of [[adultery]] has been criticized as being a prohibition, which, in law or in practice, is used primarily against women; and incites violence against women ([[crimes of passion]], honor killings).{{Refn|A Joint Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice in 2012 stated:<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |title=Statement by the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150306103836/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672& |archive-date=2015-03-06 }}</ref> "the United Nations Working Group on discrimination against women in law and in practice is deeply concerned at the criminalization and penalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women." UN Women also stated that "Drafters should repeal any criminal offenses related to adultery or extramarital sex between consenting adults".<ref group=upper-roman>{{cite web|url=http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|title=Decriminalization of adultery and defenses|website=Endvawnow.org|access-date=14 June 2015|archive-date=8 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108112544/http://www.endvawnow.org/en/articles/738-decriminalization-of-adultery-and-defenses.html%29|url-status=live}}</ref>|group=lower-roman}}