Editing Problem solving (section)

== Cognitive sciences: two schools ==
{{anchor|acrossDomainsExpertise}}
Problem-solving processes differ across knowledge domains and across levels of expertise.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sternberg|first=R. J.|year=1995|chapter=Conceptions of expertise in complex problem solving: A comparison of alternative conceptions|editor-first1=P. A.|editor-last1=Frensch|editor-first2=J.|editor-last2=Funke|title=Complex problem solving: The European Perspective|pages=295–321|location=Hillsdale, N.J.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}}</ref> For this reason, [[cognitive sciences]] findings obtained in the laboratory cannot necessarily generalize to problem-solving situations outside the laboratory. This has led to a research emphasis on real-world problem solving, since the 1990s. This emphasis has been expressed quite differently in North America and Europe, however. Whereas North American research has typically concentrated on studying problem solving in separate, natural knowledge domains, much of the European research has focused on novel, complex problems, and has been performed with computerized scenarios.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Funke |first1=J. |year=1991 |chapter=Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systems |pages=185–222 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
In Europe, two main approaches have surfaced, one initiated by [[Donald Broadbent]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last=Broadbent|first=Donald E.|year=1977|url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640747708400596|url-access=subscription|title=Levels, hierarchies, and the locus of control|journal=Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=29|issue=2|pages=181–201|doi=10.1080/14640747708400596|s2cid=144328372|access-date=2019-06-09|archive-date=2020-08-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806214714/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14640747708400596|url-status=live}}
|2={{cite book|last1=Berry|first1=Dianne C.|last2=Broadbent|first2=Donald E.|year=1995|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200134353|chapter=Implicit learning in the control of complex systems: A reconsideration of some of the earlier claims|editor-first1=P.A.|editor-last1=Frensch|editor-first2=J.|editor-last2=Funke|title=Complex problem solving: The European Perspective|pages=131–150|location=Hillsdale, N.J.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}}
}}</ref> in the United Kingdom and the other one by [[Dietrich Dörner]]<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last= Dörner|first= Dietrich|year=1975|title=Wie Menschen eine Welt verbessern wollten|trans-title=How people wanted to improve the world|journal=Bild der Wissenschaft|volume=12|pages=48–53|lang=de}}
|2={{cite book | last= Dörner|first= Dietrich|year=1985|chapter= Verhalten, Denken und Emotionen|trans-chapter=Behavior, thinking, and emotions|editor-first1=L. H.|editor-last1= Eckensberger |editor-first2= E. D.|editor-last2= Lantermann |title=Emotion und Reflexivität|pages=157–181|location=München, Germany|publisher=Urban & Schwarzenberg|lang=de}}
|3={{cite book | last1= Dörner|first1= Dietrich|last2= Wearing|first2= Alex J. |year=1995|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200134353 |chapter=Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer-simulated) theory|editor-first1=P.A.|editor-last1=Frensch|editor-first2=J.|editor-last2=Funke|title=Complex problem solving: The European Perspective|pages=65–99|location=Hillsdale, N.J.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}}
}}</ref> in Germany. The two approaches share an emphasis on relatively complex, semantically rich, computerized laboratory tasks, constructed to resemble real-life problems. The approaches differ somewhat in their theoretical goals and methodology. The tradition initiated by Broadbent emphasizes the distinction between cognitive problem-solving processes that operate under awareness versus outside of awareness, and typically employs mathematically well-defined computerized systems. The tradition initiated by Dörner, on the other hand, has an interest in the interplay of the cognitive, motivational, and social components of problem solving, and utilizes very complex computerized scenarios that contain up to 2,000 highly interconnected variables.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite book | last= Buchner|first= A. |year=1995|chapter=Theories of complex problem solving|editor-first1=P.A.|editor-last1=Frensch|editor-first2=J.|editor-last2=Funke|title=Complex problem solving: The European Perspective|pages=27–63|location=Hillsdale, N.J.|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}}
|2={{cite book | editor-last1= Dörner|editor-first1=D.|editor-last2= Kreuzig|editor-first2= H. W.|editor-last3= Reither|editor-first3= F.|editor-last4= Stäudel|editor-first4=T.|year=1983|title=Lohhausen. Vom Umgang mit Unbestimmtheit und Komplexität|trans-title=Lohhausen. On dealing with uncertainty and complexity|location=Bern, Switzerland|publisher=Hans Huber|lang=de}}
|3={{cite book | last1= Ringelband|first1= O. J.|last2= Misiak|first2= C.|last3= Kluwe|first3= R. H.|year=1990|chapter=Mental models and strategies in the control of a complex system|editor-first1=D.|editor-last1=Ackermann|editor-first2=M. J.|editor-last2=Tauber|title=Mental models and human-computer interaction|volume=1|pages=151–164|location=Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier Science Publishers}}
}}</ref>

=== North America ===
In North America, initiated by the work of Herbert A. Simon on "learning by doing" in [[semantic]]ally rich domains,<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal |last1=Anzai|first1=K. |last2=Simon|first2= H. A. |title=The theory of learning by doing |journal=Psychological Review |volume=86 |pages=124–140 |doi=10.1037/0033-295X.86.2.124 |year=1979 |pmid=493441 |issue=2 |ref=Reference-Anzai}}
|2={{cite journal | last1=Bhaskar | first1=R. | last2=Simon | first2=Herbert A. | title=Problem Solving in Semantically Rich Domains: An Example from Engineering Thermodynamics | journal=Cognitive Science | publisher=Wiley | volume=1 | issue=2 | year=1977 | issn=0364-0213 | doi=10.1207/s15516709cog0102_3 |doi-access=free | pages=193–215}}
}}</ref> researchers began to investigate problem solving separately in different natural [[knowledge domain]]s—such as physics, writing, or [[chess]] playing—rather than attempt to extract a global theory of problem solving.<ref>e.g., {{cite book |year=1991 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref> These researchers have focused on the development of problem solving within certain domains, that is on the development of [[expertise]].<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal | last1= Chase|first1=W. G.|last2=Simon|first2=H. A.|year=1973|title=Perception in chess|journal=Cognitive Psychology|volume=4|pages=55–81|doi=10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 }}
|2={{cite journal |last1=Chi|first1= M. T. H. |last2=Feltovich|first2= P. J. |last3=Glaser|first3= R. |year=1981 |title=Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices |journal=Cognitive Science |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=121–152 |ref=Reference-Chi |doi=10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2|doi-access=free }}
|3={{cite journal |last1=Anderson|first1=J. R. |last2=Boyle|first2= C. B. |last3=Reiser|first3= B. J. | title = Intelligent tutoring systems | journal = Science | year = 1985 | volume = 228 | pages = 456–462 | doi = 10.1126/science.228.4698.456 | pmid = 17746875 | issue = 4698 |ref=Reference-Anderson|bibcode=1985Sci...228..456A |s2cid=62403455}}
}}</ref>

Areas that have attracted rather intensive attention in North America include:
* calculation<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sokol |first1=S. M. |last2=McCloskey |first2=M. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 |chapter-url-access=limited|chapter=Cognitive mechanisms in calculation |pages=85–116 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>
* computer skills<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kay |first1=D. S. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |chapter-url-access=limited |chapter=Computer interaction: Debugging the problems |pages=317–340 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443 |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2022-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204055601/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA317 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* game playing<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frensch |first1=P. A. |last2=Sternberg |first2=R. J. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA343 |chapter-url-access=limited|chapter=Skill-related differences in game playing |pages=343–381 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J .|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>
* lawyers' reasoning<ref name="Amsel1991">{{cite book |last1=Amsel |first1=E. |last2=Langer |first2=R. |last3=Loutzenhiser |first3=L. |year=1991 |chapter=Do lawyers reason differently from psychologists? A comparative design for studying expertise |pages=223–250 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>
* managerial problem solving<ref name="Wagner">{{cite book |last1=Wagner |first1=R. K. |year=1991 |chapter=Managerial problem solving |pages=159–183 |id=[[PsycNET]]: [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-98396-005 1991-98396-005] |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates}}</ref>
* mathematical problem solving<ref>{{multiref2|1={{cite book|author-link=George Pólya|last=Pólya|first=George|year=1945|title=How to Solve It|publisher=Princeton University Press}}|2={{cite book|last=Schoenfeld|first=A. H.|year=1985|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0cbSBQAAQBAJ|url-access=limited|title=Mathematical Problem Solving|location=Orlando, Fla.|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-1-4832-9548-0|access-date=2019-06-09|archive-date=2023-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231023053840/https://books.google.com/books?id=0cbSBQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} }}</ref>
* mechanical problem solving<ref>{{cite book |last=Hegarty |first=M. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 |chapter-url-access=limited |chapter=Knowledge and processes in mechanical problem solving |pages=253–285 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443 |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2022-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204055603/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA253 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* personal problem solving<ref>{{cite journal | last1= Heppner|first1= P. P.|last2= Krauskopf|first2= C. J. |year=1987|title= An information-processing approach to personal problem solving|journal=The Counseling Psychologist|volume=15|issue= 3|pages=371–447|doi= 10.1177/0011000087153001|s2cid= 146180007}}</ref>
* political decision making<ref>{{cite book |last1=Voss |first1=J. F. |last2=Wolfe |first2=C. R. |last3=Lawrence |first3=J. A. |last4=Engle |first4=R. A. |year=1991 |chapter=From representation to decision: An analysis of problem solving in international relations |pages=119–158 |id=[[PsycNET]]: [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1991-98396-004 1991-98396-004] |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>
* problem solving in electronics<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lesgold |first1=A. |last2=Lajoie |first2=S. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA287 |chapter-url-access=limited |chapter=Complex problem solving in electronics |pages=287–316 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443 |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2022-12-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221204055601/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA287 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* problem solving for innovations and inventions: [[TRIZ]]<ref name="Altshuller1994">{{cite book | last = Altshuller | first = Genrich | year = 1994 | title = And Suddenly the Inventor Appeared | translator = Lev Shulyak | location = Worcester, Mass. | publisher = Technical Innovation Center | isbn = 978-0-9640740-1-9 |ref=Reference-Altshuller1994}}</ref>
* reading<ref>{{cite book |last1=Stanovich |first1=K. E. |last2=Cunningham |first2=A. E. |year=1991 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |chapter-url-access=limited |chapter=Reading as constrained reasoning |pages=3–60 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443 |access-date=2022-12-04 |archive-date=2023-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230903202339/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZECYAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* social problem solving<ref name=DZurilla />
* writing<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bryson |first1=M. |last2=Bereiter |first2=C. |last3=Scardamalia |first3=M. |last4=Joram |first4=E. |year=1991 |chapter=Going beyond the problem as given: Problem solving in expert and novice writers |pages=61–84 |editor-first1=R. J. |editor-last1=Sternberg |editor-first2=P. A. |editor-last2=Frensch |title=Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms |place=Hillsdale, N.J. |publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn=0-8058-0650-4 |oclc=23254443}}</ref>