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==Theories== The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be organised into several theoretical schools. Although these perspectives differ, most of them emphasize the influence of unconscious elements on the conscious. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theories.<ref>[[cf.]] Dorpat, Theodore, B. Killingmo, and S. Akhtar. 1976. ''Journal of the American Psychoanalytical Association'' 24:855β74.</ref> There are some persistent conflicts among psychoanalysts regarding specific causes of certain syndromes, and some disputes regarding the ideal treatment techniques. In the 21st century, psychoanalytic ideas have found influence in fields such as [[childcare]], [[education]], [[literary criticism]], [[cultural studies]], [[mental health]], and particularly [[psychotherapy]]. Though most mainstream psychoanalysts subscribe to modern strains of psychoanalytical thought, there are groups who follow the precepts of a single psychoanalyst and their school of thought. Psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as [[archetypal literary criticism]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Charles E. |last=Bressler |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/651487421|title=Literary Criticism: An Introduction to Theory and Practice |date=2011|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-205-79169-9|pages=123β142|oclc=651487421}}</ref> ===Topographic theory=== ''Topographic theory'' was named and first described by [[Sigmund Freud]] in ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' (1899).<ref>Freud, Sigmund. 1955 [1915]. "The Unconscious." In [[The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud|''Standard Edition'']] 14, edited by [[James Strachey|J. Strachey]]. London: [[Hogarth Press]].</ref> The theory hypothesizes that the mental apparatus can be divided into the systems [[Consciousness|Conscious]], [[Preconscious]], and [[Unconscious mind|Unconscious]]. These systems are not [[Anatomy|anatomical]] structures of the brain but, rather, mental processes. Although Freud retained this theory throughout his life, he largely replaced it with the ''structural theory''.<ref name="Langs R 2010">[[Robert Langs|Langs, Robert]]. 2010. ''Freud on a Precipice: How Freud's Fate pushed Psychoanalysis over the Edge''. Lanham, MD: [[Jason Aronson]].</ref> ===Structural theory=== Structural theory divides the psyche into the [[Id, ego, and super-ego|id]], the [[Id, ego and super-ego|ego]], and the [[super-ego]]. The id is present at birth as the repository of basic instincts, which Freud called "''Triebe''" ("drives"). Unorganized and unconscious, it operates merely on the 'pleasure principle', without realism or foresight. The ego develops slowly and gradually, being concerned with mediating between the urging of the id and the realities of the external world; it thus operates on the 'reality principle'. The super-ego is held to be the part of the ego in which self-observation, [[self-criticism]] and other reflective and judgmental faculties develop. The ego and the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious.<ref name="Langs R 2010" /> ===Neuropsychoanalysis=== In the late 20th century, neuropsychoanalysis was introduced. The aim of this new field was to bridge the gap between psychoanalytic concepts and neuroscientific findings. Solms theorizes that for every cognition-based action, there is a neurological reason behind it. According to Daniela Mosri, neuropsychoanalysis was coined by Solms and is a continuation of the original model proposed by Freud in 1895.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Brian |last2=Flores Mosri |first2=Daniela |date=2016-10-13 |title=The Neuropsychoanalytic Approach: Using Neuroscience as the Basic Science of Psychoanalysis |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |language=English |volume=7 |page=1459 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01459 |doi-access=free |pmid=27790160 |pmc=5063004 |issn=1664-1078}}</ref> Neuropsychoanalysis is an interdisciplinary approach that focuses on how neurobiological mechanisms influence the psychological aspects of the human mind with emphasis on repression, the dynamics of dreams, therapeutic relationships. Neuroimaging is one of the methods used to empirically validate psychoanalytic concepts. === Ego psychology === [[Ego psychology]] was initially suggested by Freud in ''Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety'' (1926),<ref name="Freud 1926" /> while major steps forward would be made through [[Anna Freud]]'s work on [[defense mechanisms]], first published in her book ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defence'' (1936).<ref name="Freud 1937" /> The theory was refined by [[Heinz Hartmann|Hartmann]], Loewenstein, and Kris in a series of papers and books from 1939 through the late 1960s. Leo Bellak was a later contributor. This series of constructs, paralleling some of the later developments of cognitive theory, includes the notions of autonomous ego functions: mental functions not dependent, at least in origin, on intrapsychic conflict. Such functions include: sensory perception, motor control, symbolic thought, logical thought, speech, abstraction, integration (synthesis), orientation, concentration, judgment about danger, reality testing, adaptive ability, executive decision-making, hygiene, and self-preservation. Freud noted that inhibition is one method that the mind may utilize to interfere with any of these functions in order to avoid painful emotions. Hartmann (1950s) pointed out that there may be delays or deficits in such functions.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hartmann|first=Heinz|title=Essays on Ego Psychology Selected Problems in Psychoanalytic Theory}}</ref> Frosch (1964) described differences in those people who demonstrated damage to their relationship to reality, but who seemed able to test it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Frosch|first=John|date=1964|title=The psychotic character: Clinical psychiatric considerations|journal=The Psychiatric Quarterly|volume=38|issue=1β4|pages=81β96|doi=10.1007/bf01573368|pmid=14148396|s2cid=9097652|issn=0033-2720}}</ref> According to ego psychology, ego strengths, later described by [[Otto F. Kernberg]] (1975), include the capacities to control oral, sexual, and destructive impulses; to tolerate painful affects without falling apart; and to prevent the eruption into consciousness of bizarre symbolic fantasy.<ref>[[Otto F. Kernberg|Kernberg, Otto]]. 1975. ''Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism''. New York: [[Jason Aronson]].</ref> Synthetic functions, in contrast to autonomous functions, arise from the development of the ego and serve the purpose of managing conflict processes. Defenses are synthetic functions that protect the conscious mind from awareness of forbidden impulses and thoughts. One purpose of ego psychology has been to emphasize that some mental functions can be considered to be basic, rather than derivatives of wishes, affects, or defenses. However, autonomous ego functions can be secondarily affected because of unconscious conflict.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hauser |first1=S. |title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |chapter=Ego Psychology and Psychoanalysis |date=1 January 2001 |pages=4365β4369 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00393-4|isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 }}</ref> For example, a patient may have an hysterical amnesia (memory being an autonomous function) because of intrapsychic conflict (wishing not to remember because it is too painful). Taken together, the above theories present a group of [[Metapsychology|metapsychological]] assumptions. Therefore, the inclusive group of the different classical theories provides a cross-sectional view of human mental processes. There are six "points of view", five described by Freud and a sixth added by Hartmann. Unconscious processes can therefore be evaluated from each of these six points of view:<ref>Rapaport, Gill. 1959. "The Points of View and Assumptions of Metapsychology." ''[[The International Journal of Psychoanalysis]]'' 40: 153β62. {{PMID|14436240}}.</ref> # Topographic # Dynamic (the theory of conflict) # Economic (the theory of energy flow) # Structural # Genetic (i.e. propositions concerning origin and development of psychological functions) # Adaptational (i.e. psychological phenomena as it relates to the external world) ====Modern conflict theory==== ''Modern conflict theory'', a variation of [[ego psychology]], is a revised version of structural theory, most notably different by altering concepts related to where repressed thoughts were stored.<ref name="Freud 1923" /><ref name="Freud 1926" /> Modern conflict theory addresses emotional symptoms and character traits as complex solutions to mental conflict.<ref>[[Charles Brenner (psychiatrist)|Brenner, Charles]]. 2006. "Psychoanalysis: Mind and Meaning." ''[[The Psychoanalytic Quarterly|Psychoanalytic Quarterly]].''</ref> It dispenses with the concepts of a fixed [[id, ego and superego]], and instead posits conscious and unconscious conflict among wishes (dependent, controlling, sexual, and aggressive), guilt and shame, emotions (especially anxiety and depressive affect), and defensive operations that shut off from consciousness some aspect of the others. Moreover, healthy functioning (adaptive) is also determined, to a great extent, by resolutions of conflict. A major objective of modern conflict-theory psychoanalysis is to change the balance of conflict in a patient by making aspects of the less adaptive solutions (also called "compromise formations") conscious so that they can be rethought, and more adaptive solutions found. Current theoreticians who follow the work of [[Charles Brenner (psychiatrist)|Charles Brenner]], especially ''The Mind in Conflict'' (1982), include Sandor Abend,<ref>Abend, Sandor, Porder, and Willick. 1983. ''Borderline Patients: Clinical Perspectives''.</ref> [[Jacob Arlow]],<ref>[[Jacob Arlow|Arlow, Jacob]] and [[Charles Brenner (psychiatrist)|Charles Brenner]]. 1964. ''Psychoanalytic Concepts and the Structural Theory''.</ref> and Jerome Blackman.<ref name="Blackman">Blackman, Jerome. 2003. ''101 Defenses: How the Mind Shields Itself''.</ref> === Object relations theory === [[Object relations theory]] attempts to explain human relationships through a study of how mental representations of the self and others are organized.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Object Relations Theory|url=https://web.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/objectrelations.html|access-date=2020-07-20|website=web.sonoma.edu|archive-date=2020-09-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927190929/https://web.sonoma.edu/users/d/daniels/objectrelations.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The clinical symptoms that suggest object relations problems (typically developmental delays throughout life) include disturbances in an individual's capacity to feel: warmth, empathy, trust, sense of security, identity stability, consistent emotional closeness, and stability in relationships with significant others. Klein discusses the concept of [[introjection]], creating a mental representation of external objects; and [[Psychological projection|projection]], applying this mental representation to reality.<ref name="Abrahams 2021">{{Cite book |last1=Abrahams |first1=Deborah |last2=Rohleder |first2=Poul |title=A clinical guide to psychodynamic psychotherapy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1239743018 |date=2021 |location=Abingdon, Oxfordshire |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-351-13858-1 |oclc=1239743018}}</ref>{{Rp|24}} [[Wilfred Bion]] introduced the concept of ''containment'' of projections in the mother-child relationship where a mother understands an infants projections, modifies them and returns them to the child.<ref name="Abrahams 2021" />{{Rp|27}} Concepts regarding internal representation (aka 'introspect', 'self and object representation', or 'internalization of self and other'), although often attributed to [[Melanie Klein]], were actually first mentioned by Sigmund Freud in his early concepts of drive theory (''[[Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality]]'', 1905). Freud's 1917 paper "[[Mourning and Melancholia]]", for example, hypothesized that unresolved grief was caused by the survivor's internalized image of the deceased becoming fused with that of the survivor, and then the survivor shifting unacceptable anger toward the deceased onto the now complex [[self-image]].<ref name="Freud 1917" /> Melanie Klein's hypotheses regarding internalization during the first year of life, leading to paranoid and depressive positions, were later challenged by [[RenΓ© Spitz]] (e.g., ''The First Year of Life'', 1965), who divided the first year of life into a coenesthetic phase of the first six months, and then a diacritic phase for the second six months. [[Margaret Mahler|Mahler]], Fine, and Bergman (1975) describe distinct phases and subphases of child development leading to "separation-individuation" during the first three years of life, stressing the importance of constancy of parental figures in the face of the child's destructive aggression, internalizations, stability of affect management, and ability to develop healthy [[autonomy]].<ref>[[Margaret Mahler|Mahler, Margaret]], Fine, and Bergman. 1975. ''The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant''.</ref> During adolescence, [[Erik Erikson]] (1950β1960s) described the 'identity crisis', that involves identity-diffusion anxiety. In order for an adult to be able to experience "Warm-ETHICS: (warmth, Empathy, Trust, [[Donald Winnicott|Holding environment]], Identity, Closeness, and Stability) in relationships, the teenager must resolve the problems with identity and redevelop self and object constancy.<ref name="Blackman" /> === Relational psychoanalysis === ''[[Relational psychoanalysis]]'' combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object-relations theory and with inter-subjective theory as critical for mental health. It was introduced by [[Stephen A. Mitchell (psychologist)|Stephen Mitchell]].<ref>[[Stephen A. Mitchell (psychologist)|Mitchell, Stephen]]. 1997. ''Influence and Autonomy in Psychoanalysis''. [[The Analytic Press]].</ref> Relational psychoanalysis stresses how the individual's personality is shaped by both real and imagined relationships with others, and how these relationship patterns are re-enacted in the interactions between analyst and patient. Relational psychoanalysts have propounded their view of the necessity of helping certain detached, isolated patients develop the capacity for "mentalization" associated with thinking about relationships and themselves === Self psychology === {{Unreferenced section|date=October 2022}} ''[[Self psychology]]'' emphasizes the development of a stable and integrated [[Self (psychology)|sense of self]] through empathic contacts with other humans, primary significant others conceived of as '[[Self-objectification|selfobjects]]'. ''Selfobjects'' meet the developing self's needs for mirroring, idealization, and twinship, and thereby strengthen the developing self. The process of treatment proceeds through "transmuting internalization," in which the patient gradually internalizes the selfobject functions provided by the therapist. Self psychology was proposed originally by [[Heinz Kohut]], and has been further developed by [[Arnold Goldberg]], Frank Lachmann, [[Paul Ornstein|Paul]] and [[Anna Ornstein]], Marian Tolpin, and others. === Lacanian psychoanalysis === [[File:RSI WIKIPEDIA.png|thumb|Diagram showing Lacanian psychoanalysis, with "[[the Real]]," "[[The Imaginary (psychoanalysis)|the Imaginary]]" and "[[the Symbolic]]"]] [[Lacanianism|Lacanian psychoanalysis]], which integrates psychoanalysis with [[structural linguistics]] and [[Hegel]]ian philosophy, is especially popular in France and parts of Latin America. Lacanian psychoanalysis is a departure from the traditional British and American psychoanalysis. [[Jacques Lacan]] frequently used the phrase "retourner Γ Freud" ("return to Freud") in his seminars and writings, as he claimed that his theories were an extension of Freud's own, contrary to those of Anna Freud, the Ego Psychology, [[object relations]] and "self" theories and also claims the necessity of reading Freud's complete works, not only a part of them. Lacan's concepts concern the "[[mirror stage]]", [[The Real|the "Real"]], [[The Imaginary (psychoanalysis)|the "Imaginary"]], and [[The Symbolic|the "Symbolic"]], and the claim that "the unconscious is structured as a language."<ref>[[Jacques Lacan|Lacan, Jacques]]. 2006. ''The Function and Field of Speech and Language in Psychoanalysis'', translated by [[Bruce Fink (psychoanalyst)|B. Fink]]. New York: [[W. W. Norton & Company|W. W. Norton]].</ref> Though a major influence on psychoanalysis in France and parts of Latin America, Lacan and his ideas have taken longer to be translated into English and he has thus had a lesser impact on psychoanalysis and psychotherapy in the English-speaking world. In the United Kingdom and the United States, his ideas are most widely used to analyze texts in [[literary theory]].<ref>Evans, Dylan. 2005. "From Lacan to Darwin." In ''The Literary Animal; Evolution and the Nature of Narrative'', edited by [[Jonathan Gottschall|J. Gottschall]] and [[David Sloan Wilson|D. S. Wilson]]. Evanston: [[Northwestern University Press]].</ref> Due to his increasingly critical stance towards the deviation from Freud's thought, often singling out particular texts and readings from his colleagues, Lacan was excluded from acting as a training analyst in the IPA, thus leading him to create his own school in order to maintain an [[Lacanian movement|institutional structure]] for the many candidates who desired to continue their analysis with him.<ref>[[Jacques Lacan|Lacan, Jacques]]. 1990 [1974]. ''[[Television: A Challenge to the Psychoanalytic Establishment]]''.</ref> === Adaptive paradigm === {{Main|Robert Langs}} The ''adaptive paradigm'' of psychotherapy develops out of the work of [[Robert Langs]]. The ''adaptive paradigm'' interprets psychic conflict primarily in terms of conscious and unconscious adaptation to reality. Langs' recent work in some measure returns to the earlier Freud, in that Langs prefers a modified version of the [[id, ego, and super-ego|topographic model]] of the mind (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious) over the [[id, ego, and super-ego|structural model]] (id, ego, and super-ego), including the former's emphasis on trauma (though Langs looks to death-related traumas rather than sexual traumas).<ref name="Langs R 2010"/> At the same time, Langs' model of the mind differs from Freud's in that it understands the mind in terms of evolutionary biological principles.<ref>[[Robert Langs|Langs, Robert]]. 2010. ''Fundamentals of Adaptive Psychotherapy and Counseling''. London: [[Palgrave Macmillan|Palgrave-MacMillan]].</ref>
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