Editing Affirmative action (section)

==== Norway ====
The boards of all [[Allmennaksjeselskap|public stock companies (ASA)]] in Norway should have at least 40% of either gender.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19970613-045-032.html#6-3 |title=LOV-1997-06-13-45 Lov om allmennaksjeselskaper (allmennaksjeloven) |publisher=Lovdata.no |access-date=29 July 2010}}</ref> This affects roughly 400 companies of over 300,000 in total.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nettavisen.no/nyheter/27-000-flere-bedrifter-i-norge/1874337.html |title=27.000 flere bedrifter i Norge |date=27 May 2004 |publisher=nettavisen.no |access-date=31 May 2015}}</ref> In their study of the effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway, researchers Seierstad & Opsahl found that, when the affirmative action policy was first implemented, only 7 prominent directors were women and 84 were men. By August 2009, this had risen to 107 women compared to 117 men. The proportion of boards led by a woman remained low overall, but increased from 3.4% to 4.3%. By applying more restrictive definitions of prominence, the proportion of directors who were women generally increased. If only considering directors with at least three directorships, 61.4% of them were women. When considering directors with seven or more directorships, all of them were women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seierstad |first1=Cathrine |last2=Opsahl |first2=Tore |title=For the few not the many? The effects of affirmative action on presence, prominence, and social capital of women directors in Norway |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Management |date=March 2011 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |doi=10.1016/j.scaman.2010.10.002 }}</ref> A 2016 study found no effect of the ASA representation requirement on either valuation or profits of the affected companies, and also no correlation between the requirement and the restructuring of companies away from ASA.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://e24.no/makro-og-politikk/norges-handelshoeyskole/studie-kjoennskvotering-ingen-effekt-paa-loennsomhet/23783217 |title=Studie: Kjønnskvotering ingen effekt på lønnsomhet |date=2 September 2016 |publisher=e24.no |access-date=5 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eckbo |first1=B. Espen |last2=Nygaard |first2=Knut |last3=Thorburn |first3=Karin S. |title=Valuation effects of Norway's board gender-quota law revisited |journal=Management Science |date=18 August 2021 |volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=4112–4134 |doi=10.1287/mnsc.2021.4031 |hdl=11250/3046314 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>