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Behavioral ecology
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===Mating systems with no male parental care=== In a system that does not have male parental care, [[resource]] [[Biological dispersal|dispersion]], [[predation]], and the effects of [[Social animal|social living]] primarily influence female dispersion, which in turn influences male dispersion. Since males' primary concern is female acquisition, the males either indirectly or directly compete for the females. In direct [[competition]], the males are directly focused on the females.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263">Davies, N.B., Krebs, J.R. and West., S.A., (2012). ''An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology.'' 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, pp. 254–263{{ISBN?}}</ref> [[Thalassoma bifasciatum|Blue-headed wrasse]] demonstrate the behavior in which females follow resources—such as good [[nest]] sites—and males follow the females.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warner | first1 = R. R. | year = 1987 | title = Female choice of sites versus mates in a coral reef fish Thalassoma bifasciatum | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 35 | issue = 5| pages = 1470–1478 | doi=10.1016/s0003-3472(87)80019-2| s2cid = 53177154 }}</ref> Conversely, species with males that exemplify indirectly competitive behavior tend towards the males' anticipation of the resources desired by females and their subsequent effort to control or acquire these resources, which helps them to achieve success with females.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /> Grey-sided voles demonstrate indirect male competition for females. The males were experimentally observed to home in on the sites with the best food in anticipation of females settling in these areas.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ims | first1 = R.A. | year = 1987 | title = Responses in spatial organization and behavior to manipulations of the food resource in the vole Clethrionomys rufocanus | journal = Journal of Animal Ecology | volume = 56 | issue = 2| pages = 585–596 | doi=10.2307/5070| jstor = 5070 }}</ref> Males of ''[[Euglossa imperialis]]'', a non-social bee species, also demonstrate indirect competitive behavior by forming aggregations of territories, which can be considered leks, to defend fragrant-rich primary territories. The purpose of these aggregations is largely only facultative, since the more suitable fragrant-rich sites there are, the more habitable territories there are to inhabit, giving females of this species a large selection of males with whom to potentially mate.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kimsey | first1 = Lynn Siri | year = 1980 | title = The behaviour of male orchid bees (Apidae, Hymenoptera, Insecta) and the question of leks | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 28 | issue = 4| pages = 996–1004 | doi=10.1016/s0003-3472(80)80088-1| s2cid = 53161684 }}</ref> [[Lek mating|Leks]] and choruses have also been deemed another behavior among the phenomena of male competition for females. Due to the resource-poor nature of the territories that lekking males often defend, it is difficult to categorize them as indirect competitors. For example, the [[ghost moth]] males display in leks to attract a female mate. Additionally, it is difficult to classify them as direct competitors seeing as they put a great deal of effort into their defense of their territories before females arrive, and upon female arrival they put for the great mating displays to attract the females to their individual sites. These observations make it difficult to determine whether female or resource dispersion primarily influences male aggregation, especially in lieu of the apparent difficulty that males may have defending resources and females in such densely populated areas.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /> Because the reason for male aggregation into leks is unclear, five hypotheses have been proposed. These postulates propose the following as reasons for male lekking: hotspot, [[predation]] reduction, increased female attraction, hotshot males, facilitation of female choice.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /><ref>Bradbury, J. E. and Gibson, R. M. (1983) Leks and mate choice. In: ''Mate Choice'' (ed. P. Bateson). pp. 109–138. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge{{ISBN?}}</ref> With all of the mating behaviors discussed, the primary factors influencing differences within and between species are [[ecology]], social conflicts, and life history differences.<ref name="Davies et al., (2012) pp. 254-263" /> In some other instances, neither direct nor indirect competition is seen. Instead, in species like the [[Edith's checkerspot]] butterfly, males' efforts are directed at acquisition of females and they exhibit indiscriminate mate location behavior, where, given the low cost of mistakes, they blindly attempt to mate both correctly with females and incorrectly with other objects.<ref name=five>{{cite journal|last=Moore|first=Sandra D.|title=Male-Biased Mortality in the Butterfly ''Euphydryas editha'': a Novel Cost of Mate Acquisition|journal=The American Naturalist |year=1987 |volume=130 |issue=2 |pages=306–309 |doi=10.1086/284711|s2cid=84989304}}</ref>
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