Editing History of the Internet (section)

===TCP/IP goes global (1980s)===
====SATNET, CERN and the European Internet====
{{See also|Protocol Wars}}
In 1982, Norway ([[NORSAR]]/[[Norwegian Defence Research Establishment|NDRE]]) and [[Peter T. Kirstein|Peter Kirstein's]] research group at University College London (UCL) left the ARPANET and reconnected using TCP/IP over [[SATNET]].<ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite IETF|title=Routing and Access Control in UK to US Services|ien=190}}</ref> There were 40 [[Internet in the United Kingdom#Early years|British research groups]] using UCL's link to ARPANET in 1975;<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=Kirstein |first1=P.T. |title=Early experiences with the Arpanet and Internet in the United Kingdom |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=1999 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=38–44 |doi=10.1109/85.759368 |s2cid=1558618 }}</ref> by 1984 there was a user population of about 150 people on both sides of the Atlantic.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kirstein |first=P. T. |date=December 1984 |title=The University College London International Computer Communications Interconnection Service |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10076375/1/pub-102-D.pdf |journal=Internal Working Paper}}</ref>

Between 1984 and 1988, [[CERN]] began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs, and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system (CERNET) internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP, and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989, when a transatlantic connection to Cornell University was established.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Fluckiger|first=Francois|date=February 2000|title=The European Researchers' Network|url=https://fluckiger.web.cern.ch/Fluckiger/Articles/F.Fluckiger-The_European_Researchers_Network.pdf|journal=La Recherche|issue=328|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180929121140/https://fluckiger.web.cern.ch/Fluckiger/Articles/F.Fluckiger-The_European_Researchers_Network.pdf|archive-date=September 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/blog/2014/07/02/how-web-got-its-lingua-franca|title=How the Web Got its 'Lingua Franca' {{!}} Internet Hall of Fame|website=www.internethalloffame.org|date=July 2, 2014 |access-date=2020-04-03}}</ref><ref name="nsf">{{Cite web |title=The Internet—From Modest Beginnings |url=https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/modest.htm  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007113705/https://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/modest.htm |archive-date=2016-10-07 |work=NSF website |access-date=September 30, 2011}}</ref>

The [[CSNET|Computer Science Network]] (CSNET) began operation in 1981 to provide networking connections to institutions that could not connect directly to ARPANET. Its first international connection was to Israel in 1984. Soon after, connections were established to computer science departments in Canada, France, and Germany.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|url=https://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_csnet.htm|title=CSNET, Computer Science Network}}</ref>

In 1988, the first international connections to [[National Science Foundation Network|NSFNET]] was established by France's [[French Institute for Research in Computer Science and Automation|INRIA]],<ref name=":02">{{cite book |doi=10.4324/9781315748962-6 |chapter=From the Minitel to the Internet: The Path to Digital Literacy and Network Culture in France (1980s–1990s) |title=The Routledge Companion to Global Internet Histories |date=2017 |last1=Schafer |first1=Valérie |last2=Thierry |first2=Benjamin G. |pages=77–89 |isbn=978-1-315-74896-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlwlDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT191 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=A brief history of the internet|url=http://thetechnologytrend.blogspot.com/2012/03/brief-history-of-internet.html|last=Andrianarisoa|first=Menjanirina|date=March 2, 2012}}{{user-generated inline|date=September 2023}}</ref> and [[Piet Beertema]] at the [[Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica]] (CWI) in the Netherlands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cwi.nl/about/history/cwi-achievements-details|title=CWI History: details|website=CWI|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-02-09}}</ref> Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI, visited [[Ben Segal (computer scientist)|Ben Segal]], CERN's TCP/IP coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of [[EUnet]], the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links), over to TCP/IP. The previous year, Segal had met with [[Len Bosack]] from the then still small company [[Cisco Systems|Cisco]] about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and Segal was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks. The [[NORDUnet]] connection to NSFNET was in place soon after, providing open access for university students in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lehtisalo|first=Kaarina|url=http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf|title=The history of NORDUnet: twenty-five years of networking cooperation in the noridic countries|date=2005|publisher=NORDUnet|isbn=978-87-990712-0-3|language=en|access-date=May 2, 2020|archive-date=March 4, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304031416/http://www.nordu.net/history/TheHistoryOfNordunet_simple.pdf}}</ref> 

In January 1989, CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Segal |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Segal (computer scientist) |title=A short history of Internet protocols at CERN |publisher=CERN |year=1995 |location=Geneva |publication-date=April 1995 |language=English |doi=10.17181/CERN_TCP_IP_history}}</ref> This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens ([[RIPE]]), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out coordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a [[cooperative]] in Amsterdam.

The United Kingdom's [[national research and education network]] (NREN), [[JANET]], began operation in 1984 using the UK's [[Coloured Book protocols]] and connected to NSFNET in 1989. In 1991, JANET adopted Internet Protocol on the existing network.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=January 1991|title=FLAGSHIP|url=http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p012.htm|journal=Central Computing Department Newsletter|issue=12|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213100220/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p012.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=September 1991|title=FLAGSHIP|url=http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p016.htm|journal=Central Computing Department Newsletter|issue=16|access-date=February 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213100222/http://www.chilton-computing.org.uk/ccd/literature/ccd_newsletters/flagship/p016.htm|archive-date=February 13, 2020}}</ref> The same year, Dai Davies introduced Internet technology into the pan-European NREN, [[DANTE|EuropaNet]], which was built on the X.25 protocol.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/inductee/dai-davies/ |title=Dai Davies |website=Internet Hall of Fame }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.internethalloffame.org/2015/01/16/protocol-wars/ |title=Protocol Wars |website=Internet Hall of Fame |date=January 16, 2015 }}</ref> The [[European Academic and Research Network]] (EARN) and [[TERENA|RARE]] adopted IP around the same time, and the European Internet backbone [[EBONE]] became operational in 1992.<ref name=":6" />

Nonetheless, for a period in the late 1980s and early 1990s, engineers, organizations and nations were [[Protocol Wars|polarized over the issue of which standard]], the [[OSI model]] or the Internet protocol suite would result in the best and most robust computer networks.<ref name="ieee201703" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Russell |first1=A.L. |title='Rough Consensus and Running Code' and the Internet-OSI Standards War |journal=IEEE Annals of the History of Computing |date=July 2006 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=48–61 |doi=10.1109/MAHC.2006.42 |s2cid=206442834 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url={{Google books|DN-t8MpZ0-wC|page=106|plainurl=yes}} |title=The Protocol Wars |pages=106–107 }} in  {{cite book |doi=10.1002/9783527629336.ch4 |chapter=Different Approaches |title=A History of International Research Networking |date=2010 |pages=73–110 |isbn=978-3-527-32710-2 |first1=Howard |last1=Davies |first2=Beatrice |last2=Bressan }}</ref>

====The link to the Pacific====
Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network [[JUNET]] in 1984, connected to CSNET,<ref name=":10" /> and later to NSFNET in 1989, marking the spread of the Internet to Asia.

South Korea set up a two-node domestic TCP/IP network in 1982, the System Development Network (SDN), adding a third node the following year. SDN was connected to the rest of the world in August 1983 using UUCP (Unix-to-Unix-Copy); connected to CSNET in December 1984;<ref name=":10" /> and formally connected to the NSFNET in 1990.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://net.its.hawaii.edu/history/Korean_Internet_History.pdf |title=A Brief History of the Internet in Korea |author=Kilnam Chon |author2=Hyunje Park |author3=Kyungran Kang |author4=Youngeum Lee }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A Brief History of the Internet in Korea (2005) – 한국 인터넷 역사 프로젝트 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/koreainternethistory/publication/brief-history-korea-eng-ver |access-date=2016-05-30 |website=sites.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Shrum |first1=Wesley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNFOD_g7xXIC&pg=PA55 |title=Past, Present and Future of Research in the Information Society |last2=Benson |first2=Keith |last3=Bijker |first3=Wiebe |last4=Brunnstein |first4=Klaus |date=2007-12-14 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-47650-6 |page=55 |language=en}}</ref>

In Australia, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed in the late 1980s, based on various technologies such as X.25, [[UUCP]]Net, and via a CSNET.<ref name=":10" /> These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. [[AARNet]] was formed in 1989 by the [[Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee]] and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.

New Zealand adopted the UK's [[Coloured Book protocols]] as an interim standard and established its first international IP connection to the U.S. in 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|title=History of University of Waikato: University of Waikato|url=https://www.waikato.ac.nz/about/history.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801155046/https://www.waikato.ac.nz/about/history.shtml|archive-date=2020-08-01|access-date=2020-02-09|website=www.waikato.ac.nz}}</ref>

====A "digital divide" emerges====
[[File:InternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg|thumb|360px|<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of Internet users|Internet users in 2023 as a percentage of a country's population]]'''</div><small>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name=ITU-IndividualsUsingTheInternet>{{citation |url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/statistics/2013/Individuals_Internet_2000-2012.xls |title=Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000–2012 |publisher=International Telecommunication Union |location=Geneva |date=June 2013 |format=XLS}}</ref></small>]]
{{Main|Global digital divide|Digital divide}}

[[File:FixedBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap.svg|thumb |360px |<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|Fixed broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012]]<br/>as a percentage of a country's population'''</div>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="FixedBroadbandITUDynamic2012">{{citation |url=http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx |title=Fixed (wired)-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012 |format=Dynamic Report |publisher=ITU ITC EYE, [[International Telecommunication Union]]}}</ref>]]

[[File:MobileBroadbandInternetPenetrationWorldMap 2013.svg|thumb |360px |<div style="text-align: center;">'''[[List of countries by number of broadband Internet subscriptions|Mobile broadband Internet subscriptions in 2012]]<br/>as a percentage of a country's population'''</div>Source: [[International Telecommunication Union]].<ref name="MobleBroadbandITUDynamic2012">{{citation |url=http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ICTEYE/Reporting/DynamicReportWizard.aspx |title=Active mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants 2012 |format=Dynamic Report |publisher=ITU ITC EYE, [[International Telecommunication Union]]}}</ref>]]

While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the Internet, [[Developing country|developing countries]] began to experience a [[digital divide#Global digital divide|digital divide]] separating them from the Internet. On an essentially continental basis, they built organizations for Internet resource administration and to share operational experience, which enabled more transmission facilities to be put into place.

====Africa====
At the beginning of the 1990s, African countries relied upon X.25 [[International Packet Switched Service|IPSS]] and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications.

In August 1995, InfoMail Uganda, Ltd., a privately held firm in Kampala now known as InfoCom, and NSN Network Services of Avon, Colorado, sold in 1997 and now known as Clear Channel Satellite, established Africa's first native TCP/IP high-speed satellite Internet services. The data connection was originally carried by a C-Band RSCC Russian satellite which connected InfoMail's Kampala offices directly to NSN's MAE-West point of presence using a private network from NSN's leased ground station in New Jersey. InfoCom's first satellite connection was just 64&nbsp;kbit/s, serving a Sun host computer and twelve US Robotics dial-up modems.

In 1996, a [[USAID]] funded project, the [[Leland Initiative]], started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. [[Guinea]], Mozambique, [[Madagascar]] and [[Rwanda]] gained [[satellite earth station]]s in 1997, followed by [[Ivory Coast]] and [[Benin]] in 1998.

Africa is building an Internet infrastructure. [[AFRINIC]], headquartered in [[Mauritius]], manages IP address allocation for the continent. As with other Internet regions, there is an operational forum, the Internet Community of Operational Networking Specialists.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://icons.afrinic.net/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509143416/http://icons.afrinic.net/  |archive-date=May 9, 2007 |title=ICONS webpage |publisher=Icons.afrinic.net |access-date=May 28, 2009 }}</ref>

There are many programs to provide high-performance transmission plant, and the western and southern coasts have undersea optical cable. High-speed cables join North Africa and the Horn of Africa to intercontinental cable systems. Undersea cable development is slower for East Africa; the original joint effort between [[NEPAD|New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD)]] and the East Africa Submarine System (Eassy) has broken off and may become two efforts.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.fmtech.co.za/?p=209 | title = Nepad, Eassy partnership ends in divorce | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423094056/http://www.fmtech.co.za/?p=209 | archive-date=April 23, 2012 | website=South African Financial Times }}</ref>

====Asia and Oceania====
The [[APNIC|Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC)]], headquartered in Australia, manages IP address allocation for the continent. APNIC sponsors an operational forum, the Asia-Pacific Regional Internet Conference on Operational Technologies (APRICOT).<ref>{{cite web |date=May 4, 2009 |title=APRICOT webpage |url=http://www.apricot.net/ |access-date=May 28, 2009 |publisher=Apricot.net}}</ref>

In South Korea, VDSL, a last mile technology developed in the 1990s by NextLevel Communications, connected corporate and consumer copper-based telephone lines to the Internet.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://article.wn.com/view/2000/09/11/Next_Level_Communications_Inc_Next_Level_Announces_Purchase_/ |title=Next Level Communications, Inc. - Next Level Announces Purchase Order For DSL Equipment in South Korea From Hansol Electronics |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=September 11, 2000  |publisher=[[Business Wire]] |access-date=December 20, 2022}}</ref>

The People's Republic of China established its first TCP/IP college network, [[Tsinghua University]]'s TUNET in 1991. The PRC went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration and [[Stanford University]]'s Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own digital divide by implementing a country-wide [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China|content filter]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A brief history of the Internet in China |url=http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;854351844;pp;2;fp;2;fpid;1 |access-date=December 25, 2005 |work=China celebrates 10 years of being connected to the Internet |archive-date=October 21, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021161952/http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;854351844;pp;2;fp;2;fpid;1  }}</ref>

Japan hosted the annual meeting of the [[Internet Society]], INET'92, in [[Kobe]]. Singapore developed [[TechNet (computer network)|TECHNET]] in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.<ref>{{cite web |title=Internet History in Asia |url=http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060201035514/http://apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm |archive-date=February 1, 2006 |access-date=December 25, 2005 |work=16th APAN Meetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan}}</ref>

====Latin America====
As with the other regions, [[LACNIC|the Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC)]] manages the IP address space and other resources for its area. LACNIC, headquartered in Uruguay, operates DNS root, reverse DNS, and other key services.