Editing Iguvine Tablets (section)

==The religion of the Umbrians as reflected in the Iguvine Tablets==
===The triad of the Grabovii===
The triad of the ''Grabovii'' is the highest group of deities of the Iguvian pantheon and looks to be strictly aligned with the [[Capitoline Triad#Archaic triad|archaic triad of Roman religion]].<ref>Dumézil, Georges. (1954) Remarques sur les dieux ''Grabovio-'' d’ Iguvium, ''Revue de Philologie'' '''28''' pp.&nbsp;226&ndash;234</ref><ref>Rosenzweig, Irene (1937). ''Ritual and Cults of pre-Roman Iguvium''. London.</ref> The epithet Grabovius seems to be related to Etruscan ''crapis'', ceremonial litter, which might derive from a word meaning oakwood.<ref>from Illyrian for oak or beech: cf. Russian ''grab'' beech; Macedonian γράβιον ''wood of the oak''. P. Kretschmer. ''Festschrift Bezzenberger'', p.&nbsp;89&nbsp;ff., cited in Buck, above, p.&nbsp;371.</ref>

The triad is composed by ''Iove'' or ''Iove Patre'', ''Marte'' and ''Vofionos''. The identity of the last has been understood as corresponding to Roman gods ''Quirinus'' or ''Liber'', the latter from an IE root *h<sub>1</sub>leudh- meaning people,<ref>Vittore Pisani "Mytho-Etymologica" ''Revue des études Indo-europeennes'' (Bucarest) 1, 1938</ref><ref>Benveniste, Émil. (1945). Symbolisme social dans les cultes gréco-italique, p.7-9. ''Revue de l' histoire des religions'', '''''129'''''. as cited by Dumézil, Georges. (1977). ARR It. tr. ''La religione romana arcaica'', p.&nbsp;144. Milan.</ref><ref name="Cazanove"/> either directly from the Italic theonym ''Loifer'' or through the intermediary of the Italic or Etruscan interpretation of Greek god ''(Dionysos) Eleutheros'', recorded also in the Etruscan theonym ''Tin Luth'' (=Iuppiter Liber) of the [[Piacenza Liver]].

The gods of the triad of the Grabovii receive in sacrifice three oxen (''buf'') outside the three town gates (''Preveres Treblanes, Tesenaces, Vehiies'' before the Trebulan, Tesenacan, Vehiian Gate). Those to be offered to Vofionos are qualified as ''calersu'', probably correspondent in meaning to Latin ''callidus'', with a white forehead.<ref>Isidore ''Origines'', cited by Newman above.</ref>

===The minor triad===
The gods of this triad receive sacrifices in correspondence with those of the major one but these gods are honoured within the town gates. ''Trebos Iovios'' corresponds to ''Iove Grabovios'', ''Fisus Sancius'' to ''Marte Grabovios'' and ''Tefer Iovios'' to ''Vofionos Grabovios''. They received sacrifices of three pregnant sows, three suckling pigs and three ewe lambs respectively. Only the identity of the second one is known with any degree of certainty from attestations of his existence in Rome and elsewhere in Italy. In Rome he is known as Semo [[Sancus]] Dius Fidius. It is odd that he is here associated with Mars while his association with [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] would seem more well grounded theologically. The topic has been the object of a study by [[Dominique Briquel]]: he opines the reason should lie in the repressive and henceforth military connotation of the notion of divine sanction of the law.<ref>[[Dominique Briquel|D. Briquel]] "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu ombrien Fisus Sancius" in ''[[Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: Antiquité]]'' 1979 pp.135-137.</ref> This aspect is particularly relevant as to the divine sanction of the town wall,<ref>[[Gaius]] ''[[Institutes (Gaius)|Institutiones]]'' II 8.</ref> a fact which is of primary concern in the content of the Tablets.

''Trebos'' in ''Trebos Iovios'' is usually understood as corresponding in meaning to Latin ''trabs'', ridge of the roof. ''Tefer'' of ''Tefer Iovios'' is often explained as burner, from the IE root *''tep'' heat. This interpretation though is very debated.<ref>The same root of ''Tefer'' is also found in names of rivers such as Tiber, Tifernus, placenames such as Tibur, Tifernum Tiberinum and proper names as Etruscan Tefaries or Latin Tiberinus, Tiberius and Tiburtus. The most likely etymology of these names is from a Mediterranean word ''teba'' meaning hill. Hubschmid 1954, Alessio 1949.</ref>

Both Benveniste and Dumézil have argued that the Iguvine triads are just another testimony of their three functional hypothesis of IE religion. In particular the sacrificial offerings roughly correspond to those of Rome in their three functional significance and the sixfold invocations of VIa 30 and 39, VIb 13 and 32 (''nerf, arsmo; veiro, peiquo; castruo, fri'': princes, priests; men, cattle; fields, land produce) show a direct connection to the sovereign, military and productive activities.<ref>Rolf Noyer PDF by University of Pennsylvania: Linguistics Courses 051 (online at: linguistics upenn.edu).</ref>

===Other deities===

====Hondos Iovios====

Many scholars, from Bücheler to Prosdocimi, opine this deity is an underworld god of agricultural fertility and plenty on the grounds of the sacrifice of puppies he receives at his festival. Prosdocimi calls it the ''intermestruae cereales'': the declaration of the dog is set at the climax of the ''feriae''.<ref>TI II a 15-44. Aldo Luigi Prodocimi "L'Umbro." in ''Lingue e dialetti dell' Italia antica'' (= Popoli e civiltá 1. Italia antica VI) Roma e Padova 1978 a cura di A. L. Prosdocimi p. 713-717; 761-762. ''Hondra'' in Umbrian means under(neath), below.</ref> [[Jörg Rüpke]] remarks the association of Hondos with Jupiter is one among the numerous in the tablets, in which a complex multilevel and hierarchic structure of relationship among theonyms is envisaged. This phenomenon would put the god into a sort of host–guest relationship with the one given in the attributive. In the case of Hondos this feature is apparent also in the fact that his cults at the Hondia festival take place in the Jovian Grove but those at the lustration of the citadel (when the god bears the epithet of Çerfios) in the Coredian Grove.

It has been suggested that the theonym ''Hunte Çefi'' (''Honde Serfi''), referring to a chthonic god,<ref>Lacam, Jean-Claude Lacam. "Le «prêtre danseur» de Gubbio. Étude ombrienne (iiie-iie s. av. J.-C.)". In: ''Revue de l’histoire des religions'' [En ligne], 1 | 2011. §20, mis en ligne le 01 mars 2014, consulté le 13 février 2021. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/rhr/7709. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/rhr.7709</ref><ref>Pfiffig, Ambros J. (1972). "Megalithische Elemente in den altitalischen Kulten". ''Almogaren III/1972'', Graz 1973. pp. 111 and 114.</ref> derives from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European root]] ''*[[Dʰéǵʰōm|ǵʰōm-to]]'' 'earth',<ref>Lacam, Jean-Claude. "Le sacrifice du chien dans les communautés grecques, étrusques, italiques et romaines: approche comparatiste". In: ''[[Mélanges de l'École française de Rome: Antiquité]]'', tome 120, n°1. 2008. Antiquité. p. 45. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/mefr.2008.10414]; www.persee.fr/doc/mefr_0223-5102_2008_num_120_1_10414</ref><ref>Lacam, Jean-Claude Lacam. "Le «prêtre danseur» de Gubbio. Étude ombrienne (iiie-iie s. av. J.-C.)". In: ''Revue de l’histoire des religions'' [En ligne], 1 | 2011. §18, mis en ligne le 01 mars 2014, consulté le 13 février 2021. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/rhr/7709. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/rhr.7709</ref> a stem attested in several branches.

====Çerfos Martios, Praesta(o)ta Çerfia, Tursa Çerfia, Tursa Iovia====

These deities are invoked and receive sacrifices aimed at obtaining their favour for the protection of the ''arx'' itself, of the community and of the fields in connexion to the lustration rites of the Iguvian citadel at different locations of augural relevance.

The rites concerning the ''Praestota'' and the two ''Tursae'' involve a complex of libations aimed at obtaining a twofold action: the safety for the Iguvine community and the offsetting and expulsion of its traditional enemies.

The debated points are few as far as the ''Praestota'' and ''Tursa'' are concerned. The two theonyms correspond to the Latin ''Iuppiter Praestes'', ''Iuppiter Praestitus'', ''Iuppiter Praestabilis'' and the ''[[Lares]] Praestites''. ''Tursa'' corresponds to god ''[[Terminus (god)|Terminus]]'', being the deity that represents the boundaries of the city at different locations of augural relevance: these are without and within the city for ''Tursa Çerfia'' and ''Tursa Iovia'' respectively (TI I b; VII a). Such a meaning is connected to the Umbrian word for border, ''tuder'': ''Tursa'' is written ''Tuda'' in the Etruscan tablets, the intervocalic ''d'' being pronounced as a weak ''rs'' (i.e.: ḍ). Dumézil on the other hand, on the grounds of the function of ''Tursa'', a deity whose action is to scare, inspire terror into the enemies, opines the theonym derives from a verbal root equivalent to Latin ''terreo'', I scare (interpreting accordingly ''tursitu, tremitu'' in VIb 60).<ref>G. Dumézil ''La religione romana arcaica'' Milan 1977 p. 222-223.</ref>

There is no agreement among scholars on the meaning of the epithet ''Çerfios'' and as to whether this is also a theonym, i. e. ''Çerfos Martios'' is a god different from [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] or not. An inscription from [[Corfinium]] reads: ''Çerfom sacaracicer Semunes sua[d'', "priest of the Çerfi and the Semones", placing side by side the two categories of entities, the ''çerfi'' and the ''semunes''. ''Çerfos'' is most times associated to IE root *ker(s) and Latin theonyms ''Ceres'' and ''Cerus''. This view though might create interpretative problems concerning the theology of Mars and of the two deities who in Rome are associated with the sphere of law and defence, i. e. gods [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and Semo [[Sancus]] Dius Fidius. [[Georg Wissowa]] and [[Dumézil]] both underline that the derivation from root *ker(s) is not certain: Umbrian group -''rf'' could have a different origin than -''rs''.<ref>G. Wissowa ''Religion und Kultus der Römer'' Munich 1912 p. 192 n. 9; Dumézil ''Archaic Roman Religion'' It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 222-223. Derivation from IE root *kerr (horn) would seem to suit the functions of these gods.</ref>

====Marte Hodie; Hondos Çerfios====

Marte and Hondos appear also under these epithets. Here too the only certain indication is from Roman ''Heres'' (or ''Here'') ''Martea'', connected with ''heres'', he who inherits and also ''dominus'', the position of master of the house.<ref>Gellius XIII 23, 1 and 18; Festus s. v. p. 89 L; Ennius ''Annales'' 104 "''...Nerienem Mavortis et Herem...''". [[Hendrik Wagenvoort]] ''Pietas.Selected Essays on Roman Religion'' Leiden 1980 p. 175.</ref> Some scholars though connect the epithet to Latin adjective ''fodius'', he who destroys. The two gods both receive sacrifices of male calves in the rites for the lustration of the citadel at the Iovian and Coredian groves respectively; theirs are the last in the series of sacrifices after the two triads and before the execration of the enemies.

God Hondos receives the epithet ''Iovios'' in II and that of ''Çerfios'' in VI. This fact raises the question of whether these epithets were used alternatively in connexion with local or temporal constraints. Another similar instance is that of ''Tursa Çerfia'' and ''Tursa Iovia'', who are found without and within the ''pomerium'' respectively.

====Puemonos Pupricos and Vesuna of Puemonos Pupricos====

This divine couple appears only in tablets III and IV, the most ancient ones. Puemonos's name seems to be related with Roman goddess [[Pomona (mythology)|Pomona]]; moreover both the name itself and the epithet ''Popricos'' (''Publicus'') hint towards a universal fertility god, similar to Latin god [[Liber]]. [[Vesuna]] is also found on a coin from [[Marsian]] territory.<ref>Newman p. 4 citing Mommsen.</ref><ref>According to toponomastic studies, Vesuna is a [[hydronym|potamonym]]. i.e. a river-name in the hydronymy of Central Italy.</ref>

===General remarks on Iguvinian theonyms===

O. de Cazanove observes Iguvinian theonyms appear to be compound formations of two, three and four terms:<ref>Olivier de Cazanove in [[Jörg Rüpke]] (Editor) ''A Companion to Roman Religion'' London Wiley 2007 part I chapter 4 p. 50 f.</ref> they may consist of a substantive plus an epithet (e. g. Hondos Iovios, Tursa Iovia, Puemonos Podpricos), of a substantive plus a possessive phrase plus epithet (e. g. Vesuna of Puemonos Podpricos) and of a substantive plus epithet plus possessive phrase plus epithet (e. g. Prestota Çerfia of Çerfios Martios, Tursa Çerfia of Çerfios Martios). In his view this situation is comparable to that of Rome where are recorded purely functional deities in the pontifical books. These divinities were invoked in the prayers according to the Roman rite as mentioned by [[Gellius]]:<ref>Aulus Gellius ''Noctes Atticae'' XIII 23, 2.</ref> "''Lua Saturni, Salacia Neptuni, Hora Quirini, Virites Quirini, Maia Vulcani, Heries Iunonis, Moles Martis, Nerio Martis''". These entities would be a concrete representation of the powers of their respective god.

At Iguvium though the situation looks more complex and less fixed as Tursa and Hondos are alternatively Çerfian and Martian and Çerfian and Iovian respectively.

====Other theonyms====

Some other deities are known just because they are mentioned occasionally in specifying the limits of augural observation (included those of the town). These theonyms are for the most part known in Roman religion. They are Tursa and (possibly) Hulos in IV 17 and 19 respectively, Vestisios (Libasius) apparently god of libations (possibly related to Latin [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]]<ref name="archive.org"/> ), Hoios (cf. Latin Holus, Helus, Roman grove of [[Helernus]] in [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'' II 67-68) god of vegetation<ref>He may have a cave if ''carso Hoii'' is interpreted as cave of Hoios (Ancellotti & Cerri), but the most likely meaning of ''carso'' is ditch (Newman after A.& K.).</ref> and Padella (cf. Roman goddess Patella), goddess of opening sheaves in VIa 14. Possibly adjective ''deueia'' of ''Asa Deueia'' (VIa 9, 10) implies a cult of the sky under the name ''Dius'', ''Dia'', similar to that of [[Dea Dia]] outside Rome (Ancellotti & Cerri).

===Priesthoods===
The Attidian brethren had an ''arsfertur'' (literally the Umbrian equivalent of Latin ''adfertor'', i. e. "he who carries something to somewhere", clearly referring to a role in the ceremonies, holder of the ''pirca arsmatia'', ceremonial rod). Other mentioned offices include the ''fratrecs'' interpreted as ''curator arcae'',<ref>Prosdocimi above p. 713 f.</ref> the ''cvestor'' and the ''prinovatus'', probably agrimensors, attendants of the person who takes the auspices. An ''ohtor'' (''auctor'') is mentioned in T. III and IV: the term denotes the person responsible for the ceremony.<ref>Francis W. Newman ''The Iguvine Tablets'' London 1863 p. 1 and 24 citing Aufrecht and Kirchhof.</ref>

===Rites===

The tablets record different sets of rites held on different festive occasions: the main and recorded in greatest detail one is the annual lustration of the citadel (''ocre'', Latin ''arx'') of Iguvium (Tablets I, VI and VII). This rite includes sacrifices to the ''Grabovian'' (major) triad and the minor one near the gates of the town, sacrifices to ''Marte Hodie'' and ''Hondos Çerfios'' at the two sacred groves of ''Iove'' and ''Coredios'' (interpreted as ''Quiritius'' or ''Curiatius'') respectively, the lustral review of the people of Iguvium in arms, i. e. the city militia, the execration and ritual expulsion (''exterminatio'') of the traditional enemies of Iguvium and final sacrifices to ''Çerfios Marti(os)'', the ''Praestita Çerfia'' and the two ''Tursae'', ''Çerfia and Iovia'', at various locations without and within the [[pomerium]]. Tablets VI and VII relate the ritual actions such as circumambulations, libations, kneelings and dance in minute detail recording all the prayers and the other augural formulae. The older tablet I gives a more concise record.

The ritual triple (three time) circumambulation with fire and the victims about the city militia looks parallel to the Roman ritual performed by king Tullius as described by Dionysius of Halicarnassus.<ref>Carl D. Buck ''A Grammar of Oscan and Umbrian'' Boston 1928 p. 308 citing Dionysius Halicarn. IV 22.</ref>

The most complex ceremonies are those concerning '''Tefer Iovios''' and '''Fisus Sancius'''. A summary is appended below.

'''Tefer Iovios''' (VIb 22-42):

:Sacrifice of the ewe lambs with the usual prayers used for each god of the two triads.

:(23) Offering of the ''persondro sorsom'' (suine) at the right foot of the gate with accompanying libation.
:(24) Offering of the libations.
:(25-36) Prayer to Tefer Iovios with ''tripodium''.

:(37) Offering of the ''persondro staflare'' (bovine or ovine) at the left foot of the gate.
:Prayer repeated.

:(38) Assigning of the ''prosecta'' (cuts of sacrificial meat).
:Assigning of the libation accompanying the ''persondro sorsale '' at the right foot where the ''sorso'' was offered to the god (profanated).
:Assigning of the libation accompanying the ''persondro staflare '' at the left foot as above.

:Burning or inhumation of the ''persondro sorsale''.
:Burning or inhumation of the ''persondro staflare''.

:(40) Throwing away over the head the vessels used for the ''persondro'' during the prayer on the incense (or cereal meal).

'''Fisus Sancius''' (here appealed to also as ''Fisovius'' = ''Fiducius'') (VIb 3-18):

:Sacrifice of three suckling piglets with the usual prayers, consecration with incense (or meal) and grains as at the Trebulan gate.
:Wearing of the ''mandraculum'' (white cloth) around the right hand by the officiant.
:Adding of the ''ficla'' and ''strucla'' to the ''prosecta''.
:Placing of the ''sopo'' (offa) at the back.

:(5) The officiant while kneeling offers the libation, the ''mefa'' and the ''spefa'' spilling them from the vessels.
:(6) Prayers for the ''arx'' and the community.
:(16) During the prayers libation and ''tripodium''.
:Offering of the libation.
:Distribution of the ''prosecta'' and of the libation while kneeling.

:(17) Crushing and spilling over the fire of the ''mefa'', libation, ''sopa'' (possibly lower entrails).
:Milling while sitting, prayer over the milled incense or meal.

:(18) The two profane and the two sacred jugs are disposed in rows.<ref>After Newman, Buck, Ancellotti & Cerri.</ref>

The opening lines (1-14) of '''Tablet II''' records various sacrifices to ''Iove'', ''Iovio'' (or ''Iovia''? Newman: ''Iuno'') and ''Marte'' to be held in atonement of possible unknown ritual faults:
 
the ''Hondia'' festivals on which occasion dogs were offered in sacrifice to ''Hondos Iovios''—apparently "Earthly Zeus" or "CHTHONIC Zeus"; the feast to ''Hondos Iovios'' held by the ''[[gens]] Petronia'' (these last two festivals might in fact be one); the sacrifice and feast of the ''sodalitas'' of the ''Fratres Atiedii'' on which rams and pigs were sacrificed to ''Iove'' by the ten sets of families of the twelfth ''pomperias'', districts of Iguvium; finally the sacrifice of a calf at the feast of ''Iove Patre'' held by the gens ''Vocia'' (''Lucia''). The tablet might be fragmentary, i. e. record only the final part of a ritual at its beginning.

Here is the summary of the ceremonies at the '''festival of Hondos''' with dog sacrifice (IIa 15-44) (oddly, in the following translation, '''katlu''' is translated both "kid" and "dog"):

:(15) the sum of money for the kid(s) is to be raised among the dining tables at the published price
:the arfertur makes preparations after observing the birds
:(18) the kid(s), grains, ''strues'', ''fertum''; incense, wine, salt, ''mola''; ''mandraculum'', vases (consecrated and not or wet and dry), water (or ointment) are to be prepared

(the rite, proper, seems to begin here:)
:(19)--the fire is lit on the ''ara'' (probably "altar")
:the ''puni'' (incense) is consecrated

:(20) offering of the kid(s) to Hondos Iovios, declaration of its purity, for the gens Patrona among the Atiedian Brotherhood
:(22) the ''sopa''s (underparts?) of the kid are taken and the ''prosiciae'' (cutlets) divided upon the breadcrusts
:(23) empty baskets are placed behind and the cereals before at the foot (of the ''ara'')
:offering of the incense

::libation and ''tripodium''

::(25) ''tripodium'' near the vessels of wine chanting in turn nine times: "I honour Thee with incense and wine."
:(26) bringing of the crusts with the entrails
::(27) libation
:two cuts of the kid(s) are divided into three pieces or three times

::addition of ''strues'' and ''fertum''
:(29) offering of the dog
:prayer over the [dog's] foot and over the uncut flesh
::addition [of ''strues'' and ''fertum''] to the flesh cuts

:offering of the kid(s); prayer in front of it
:prayer on the flesh, both uncut and roasted

:offering of the ''suppa'' on the plates
:prayer on the dedicatory jugs

::(31) libation, ''tripodium'', moving and placing down of the offerings

:''suppa''s are placed behind, the flesh is taken by hand
:(33) the incense is placed in two jars on the bracket
:breadcrusts, fried placentas, pots both containing water (ointment) and empty are brought over
::(34) libation to Hondos Iovios from the jugs for the gens Petronia of the Attidian Brethren
:beyond the bracket, prayer on the pure breadcrusts
:same prayer on the placentae, the pure jugs filled with water and the empty ones on the bracket

::(37) libation and ''tripodium''

:the bracket is moved aside; prayer on the pure water (ointment)
:(38) hands are washed from the ''ara'' (or the ''ara'' is turned in the hands)
:(39) back to the ara, near it silent prayer on the pure wine
:(40) bringing and distribution of whatever the participants wish: wine, incense
:(41) grinding of the ''strues'', ''fertum''; spilling of the incense or meal on the jar
:(42) prayer on the whole and the ground grains

:the rite is proclaimed over

:(43) the kid(s) is burnt near the ''ara''.<ref>After Newman and Buck.</ref>

Sacrifices of dogs were not common among ancient Italic people. Instances in Rome include the [[Lupercalia]] and a parallel may be found in the ''[[Augurium]] Canarium''<ref>Pliny ''Naturalis Historia'' XVIII 14.</ref> and the [[Robigalia]], both held in late Spring for the propitiation of a good harvest and for the preservation of the grains from mildew respectively. According to the explanation given in Ovid by the ''flamen Quirinalis''<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' IV 939-942.</ref> the dog was sacrificed because at the time in which the grains in the ears are in danger from the heat and draught, the sun enters the constellation of the Dog: this explanation is erroneous. Another ritual aimed at protecting corn in danger from fires concerned foxes which were set afire in the Circus Maximus on the last day of the ''Cerialia'' (''[[Cerealia]]'').<ref>Ovid ''Fasti'' IV 691-712.</ref> Finally dogs were crucified on the Capitol at the beginning of August, time of the ''canicula'' to avert the rabies contagion or lessen their barking which disturbed sick people.<ref>Plutarch ''Roman Questions''.</ref>

The hymn has a fairly clear structure, with the central offering of the dog sacrifice and following prayer enveloped in sequence by offerings of ''strues'' and ''fertum'', followed by two parallel offerings and prayers, and more distantly preceded and followed by two ''tripodia''. Activities both before and after the formal period of the rite are specified. Prayers and libations are repetitively offered throughout, while consecrating and offering (presumably this involves lighting) of the incense is prominent near the beginning and ritual washing toward the end of the ceremony.

Tablet III and IV record in minute detail the rituals of the festival of Puemonos Popricos and Vesuna at a sacred grove outside the town. Recently Michael Weiss has advanced the view that this was a new year ritual on the grounds of comparative material.

===Treatment of the offerings===

Latin sources concerning the cooking of the ''viscera'' underline the difference between the Etruscan and Roman customs distinguishing the ''exta aulicocta'' boiled in the ''olla extaris'' before the offering to the god, from the Tuscan ''exta'' roasted ''in veru'' and partly eaten during the sacrificial rite. At Iguvium the description of some sacrificial rites documents both the use of spits for the viscera and the presence of ''prosiciae'' displayed on the table of the offerings beside the fire and perhaps consecrated and burnt to the gods.<ref>''Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae'' Paul Getty Foundation "Sacrifices" in "Processions, Sacrifices, Libations, Fumigations" p. 182.</ref>