Editing Remote work (section)

==Potential drawbacks and concerns==
=== Drawbacks due to reduced face-to-face interactions ===
The technology available for remote communication does not fully replicate the nuances of face-to-face interactions. Room for mistakes and [[miscommunication]] can increase. According to [[media richness theory]], face-to-face communication allows for processing rich information through the clarification of ambiguous issues, immediate feedback, and personalized communication including body language and tone of voice.<ref name="Daft, R. L. 1986">{{cite journal| last1=Daft | first1=Richard L. | author-link1=Richard L. Daft | last2=Lengel | first2=Robert H. | year=1986 | title=Organizational information requirements, media richness and structural design | journal=[[Management Science (journal)|Management Science]] | volume=32 | issue=5 | pages=554–571 | doi=10.1287/mnsc.32.5.554 | jstor=2631846 | s2cid=155016492 }}</ref> Remote work typically relies on tools such as [[videotelephony]], [[telephone]], and [[email]], which can introduce limitations such as time lags, reduced ability to interpret emotions, and slower decision-making processes.<ref name="masterclass" /> [[Asynchronous communication]], often used in remote work, can require greater coordination and management than synchronous communication.<ref name="HBR">{{Cite journal |title=Poor Communication May Be Slowing Down Your Team|url=https://hbr.org/2023/10/poor-communication-may-be-slowing-down-your-team |access-date=November 17, 2023 |journal=Harvard Business Review |date=October 18, 2023 |language=en |last1=Tsipursky |first1=Gleb }}</ref> 

An increase in videoconferencing during remote work has led to what has been termed "[[Zoom fatigue]]," with factors such as prolonged eye contact, self-monitoring during calls, limited physical movement, and reduced non-verbal communication contributing to feelings of exhaustion.<ref name="The Balance">{{Cite web |title=Disadvantages of Working From Home |url=https://www.thebalancemoney.com/the-disadvantages-of-working-at-home-2948688 |access-date=December 4, 2022 |website=The Balance |language=en}}</ref>

A 2008 study found that face-to-face interactions are associated with higher levels of interpersonal contact, connectedness, and trust.<ref name="Golden 2008"/> A 2012 study found that 54% of remote workers reported missing social interaction, while 52.5% reported missing professional interaction.<ref name="anxiety">{{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235276465 | doi=10.1108/00483481211229375 | title=From anxiety to assurance: Concerns and outcomes of telework | date=June 2012 | last1=Maruyama | first1=Takao | last2=Tietze | first2=Susanne | journal=Personnel Review | volume=41 | issue=4 | pages=450–469}}</ref>

Remote work can also impact workplace relationships, particularly when some employees work remotely and others do not. This dynamic may sometimes lead to feelings of resentment or perceptions of unfairness among those who are required to be on-site. Remote workers may also experience reduced access to in-person companionship and on-site benefits.<ref name="Madell-2022">{{Cite web |last=Madell |first=Robin |date=June 30, 2022 |title=Pros and Cons of Working From Home |url=https://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/outside-voices-careers/articles/pros-and-cons-of-working-from-home |access-date=February 12, 2022}}</ref><ref name="consequences" /><ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010" />

The adaptation of technology within organizations has been studied under adaptive [[structuration theory]], which suggests that the use of technology evolves based on both the intended purpose and how individuals choose to use it in practice.<ref name="Torraco" /><ref name="DeSanctis">{{cite journal | doi=10.1287/orsc.5.2.121 | title=Capturing the Complexity in Advanced Technology Use: Adaptive Structuration Theory | year=1994 | last1=Desanctis | first1=Gerardine | author-link1=Gerardine DeSanctis | last2=Poole | first2=Marshall Scott | journal=[[Organization Science (journal)|Organization Science]] | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=121–147| s2cid=4625142 }}</ref> Remote work introduces a social structure that both enables and constrains communication compared to traditional office environments.<ref name="Hill09">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.10.002 |title=Organizational context and face-to-face interaction: Influences on the development of trust and collaborative behaviors in computer-mediated groups | year=2009| last1=Hill | first1=N. Sharon |last2=Bartol| first2=Kathryn M. | last3=Tesluk| first3=Paul E.| last4=Langa | first4=Gosia A.| journal=[[Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes]] | volume=108 |issue=2| pages=187–201}}</ref> For example, whereas in-person norms typically encourage face-to-face interaction, remote settings require alternative forms of interpersonal exchange.<ref name="DeSanctis" /> Over time, remote work may shift the established norms of communication and collaboration within organizations.<ref name="Torraco" />

Sharing information among teams can also present challenges when working remotely. In office settings, informal information exchange often occurs spontaneously during casual encounters, such as coffee breaks. In remote work environments, sharing information typically requires more deliberate effort and proactive communication.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Azasu |first=Babatunde |date=2020 |title=Open-ended: Office space and remote working in the age of COVID-19 |journal=[[Journal of Property Management]] |volume=85 |pages=34}}</ref> The transfer of tacit knowledge, often learned by observing experienced colleagues, can be more difficult in remote settings where unplanned interactions are less frequent.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xacc6p4sKRoC |last=Engeström |first=Yrjö |title=From Teams to Knots: Activity-Theoretical Studies of Collaboration and Learning at Work |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 | isbn=978-1-139-46994-4 }}</ref>

Timely access to information may also be affected in remote work unless information sharing is actively organized. A lack of awareness about colleagues’ activities can lead to slower decision-making or less effective decisions.

From an anthropological perspective, remote work can influence the process of [[sensemaking]], as it limits exposure to a wide range of contextual cues and informal signals.<ref name="Tett">{{cite news | last1=Tett | first1=Gillian | date=June 3, 2021 | title=The empty office: what we lose when we work from home | work=[[The Guardian]] | url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/03/the-empty-office-what-we-lose-when-we-work-from-home}}</ref>

Feedback is an important component of job performance and employee development. It provides employees with information about how well they are meeting expectations and completing tasks.<ref name="Hackman1971">{{cite journal |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1971-29858-001 |last1=Hackman |first1=J. Richard |last2=Lawler |first2=Edward E. |year=1971 |title=Employee reactions to job characteristics |journal=[[Journal of Applied Psychology]] |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=259–286 |doi=10.1037/h0031152}}</ref><ref name="Hackman1976">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7 | title=Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory | year=1976 | last1=Hackman | first1=J. Richard| last2=Oldham | first2=Greg R. | author2-link=Greg Oldham | journal=[[Organizational Behavior and Human Performance]] | volume=16 | issue=2| pages=250–279| s2cid=8618462 }}</ref> In remote work, feedback mechanisms may be less immediate or clear, as electronic communication often lacks the richness of face-to-face interaction.<ref name="Daft, R. L. 1986" /><ref name="Sardes">{{cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1468-005X.2012.00284.x |title=Impact of telework on exhaustion and job engagement: A job demands and job resources model |year=2012 | last1=Sardeshmukh | first1=Shruti R. |last2=Sharma |first2=Dheeraj | last3=Golden | first3=Timothy D. |journal=New Technology, Work and Employment | volume=27 | issue=3 |pages=193–207| s2cid=111077383}}</ref> This can contribute to greater role ambiguity, where workers may be less certain about their responsibilities or expectations.<ref name="Golden11">{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0018726711418387 | title=Does it matter where your manager works? Comparing managerial work mode (Traditional, telework, virtual) across subordinate work experiences and outcomes |year=2011 |last1=Golden |first1=Timothy D. |last2=Fromen |first2=Allan |journal=Human Relations| volume=64 |issue=11 |pages=1451–1475 |s2cid=145386665}}</ref> Higher levels of role ambiguity are associated with increased conflict, frustration, and exhaustion.<ref name="Sardes" /><ref name="Sonnetag">{{Cite book | chapter-url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-28468-021 | last1=Sonnentag | first1=Sabine | last2=Frese | first2=Michael | year=2003 | chapter=Stress in organizations |others=I. B. Weiner (Series Ed.) |editor1=W. C. Borman |editor2=D. R. Ilgen |editor3=R. J. Klimoski | series=Handbook of Psychology | volume=12 |title=Industrial and Organizational Psychology |pages=453–491 | location=Hoboken, NJ | publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref> 

[[Job characteristic theory]] has found that feedback is strongly related to overall job satisfaction.<ref name="Fried">{{cite journal | last1=Fried | first1=Yitzhak | last2=Ferris | first2=Gerald R. | year=1987 | title=The validity of the job characteristics model: A review and meta-analysis | journal=[[Personnel Psychology (journal)|Personnel Psychology]] | volume=40 | issue=2 | pages=287–322 | doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00605.x}}</ref> Research indicates that reduced communication and feedback in remote settings can lead to lower levels of job engagement.<ref name="Sardes"/> Studies in 2006 and 2011 found that when perceived supervisor support and the quality of the leader-employee relationship decline, remote workers' job satisfaction may decrease.<ref name="Golden11" /><ref name="Golden 2006">{{cite journal | url=https://content.apa.org/record/2006-20695-012 | last1=Golden | first1=T. D. | last2=Veiga | first2=J. F. | last3=Simsek | first3=Z. | year=2006 | title=Telecommuting's differential impact on work–family conflict: Is there no place like home? | journal=[[Journal of Applied Psychology]] | volume=91 | issue=6 | pages=1340–1350 | doi=10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1340 | pmid=17100488}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Swanberg | first1=J. E. | last2=McKechnie | first2=S. P. | last3=Ojha | first3=M. U. | last4=James | first4=J. B. | year=2011 | title=Schedule control, supervisor support and work engagement: A winning combination for workers in hourly jobs? | journal=[[Journal of Vocational Behavior]] | volume=79 | issue=3 | pages=613–624 | doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2011.04.012}}</ref> Furthermore, when managers themselves work remotely, employees may report lower job satisfaction, possibly due to decreased clarity, slower communication, and fewer feedback opportunities.<ref name="Golden11"/> However, some workers — such as those with longer tenure, functional (rather than socially-oriented) work relationships, or certain personality traits — may report satisfaction with communication even in remote settings.<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235315433 | last1=Akkirman | first1=Ali D. | last2=Harris | first2=Drew L. | date=June 2005 | title=Organizational communication satisfaction in the virtual workplace | journal=Journal of Management Development | volume=24 | issue=5 | pages=397–409 | doi=10.1108/02621710510598427}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Fritz | first1=Mary Beth Watson | last2=Narasimhan | first2=Sridhar | last3=Rhee | first3=Hyeun-Suk | year=1998 | title=Communication and coordination in the virtual office | journal=[[Journal of Management Information Systems]] | volume=14 | issue=4 | pages=7–28 | doi=10.1080/07421222.1998.11518184| jstor=40398290 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1=Pickett | first1=Cynthia L. | first2=Wendi L. | last2=Gardner | first3=Megan | last3=Knowles | date=September 1, 2004 | title=Getting a cue: The need to belong and enhanced sensitivity to social cues | journal=[[Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin]] | volume=30 | issue=9 | pages=1095–107 | doi=10.1177/0146167203262085 | pmid=15359014 | s2cid=2007730}}</ref>

[[Social information processing (theory)|Social information processing]] theory suggests that individuals interpret and assign meaning to their work environment through social cues.<ref name="Salancik">{{cite journal | doi=10.2307/2392563 | jstor=2392563 | title=A Social Information Processing Approach to Job Attitudes and Task Design | year=1978 | last1=Salancik | first1=Gerald R. | author-link1=Gerald R. Salancik | last2=Pfeffer | first2=Jeffrey | journal=[[Administrative Science Quarterly]] | volume=23 | issue=2 | pages=224–253 | pmid=10307892}}</ref><ref name="Morgeson03">{{cite book |last1=Morgeson |first1=F.P. |last2=Campion |first2=M.A. |year=2003 |chapter=Work design |editor1=W. Bornman |editor2=D. Ilgen |editor3=R. Klimoksi |series=Handbook of Psychology |title=Industrial and Organizational Psychology |volume=12 |pages=423–452 |location=Hoboken, N.J. |publisher=Wiley}}</ref> These cues can be delivered through direct statements, cognitive evaluations, or observed behaviors of colleagues.<ref name="Morgeson03"/> In remote work settings, the reduced immediacy and richness of [[computer-mediated communication]] may slow the processing of social information compared to in-person interactions.<ref name="Waither">{{cite journal | doi=10.1177/009365092019001003 | title=Interpersonal Effects in Computer-Mediated Interaction | year=1992 | last1=Walther | first1=Joseph B. | journal=[[Communication Research (journal)|Communication Research]] | volume=19 |pages=52–90 |s2cid=145557658}}</ref>

===Lessened work motivation===
Skill variety has been found to have a strong relationship with internal [[work motivation]], with jobs that involve a range of skills leading to greater intrinsic motivation among employees.<ref name="Fried"/> A 1985 study found that in remote work settings, limitations in teamwork opportunities or reduced opportunities to engage in a variety of tasks may impact workers' internal motivation.<ref name="Shamir"/> Additionally, a 2012 study found that social isolation has been associated with decreased motivation.<ref name=anxiety/>

[[Two-factor theory|Motivator-hygiene theory]] differentiates between factors that contribute to job satisfaction (motivators) and those that can prevent dissatisfaction (hygiene factors).<ref name="Herzberg">Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B.B., (1959). The motivation to work. New York:
Wiley.</ref> Motivators, such as recognition and opportunities for career advancement, may be affected in remote work environments. A 2010 study found that remote workers who are not physically present may experience fewer opportunities for recognition and advancement compared to on-site colleagues, as they may be less visible to peers and supervisors.<ref name="Morganson, V. J. 2010">{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-17667-002 | last1=Morganson | first1=V. J. | last2=Major | first2=D. A. | last3=Oborn | first3=K. L. | last4=Verive | first4=J.M | last5=Heelan | first5=M. P. | year=2010 | title=Comparing telework locations and traditional work arrangements: differences in work–life balance support, job satisfaction and inclusion | journal=Journal of Managerial Psychology | volume=25 | issue=6 | pages=578–595 | doi=10.1108/02683941011056941}}</ref>

A 2017 study found that physical separation from the office environment may also reduce opportunities for informal encouragement, which can contribute to an employee's ability to perform at their highest potential.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Felstead |first1=Alan |last2=Henseke |first2=Golo |date=October 4, 2017 |title=Assessing the growth of remote working and its consequences for effort, well-being and work-life balance |journal=New Technology, Work and Employment |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=195–212 |doi=10.1111/ntwe.12097 |s2cid=117278071 |issn=0268-1072|doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Distractions===
While working in an office presents its own set of distractions, it has been argued that remote work may involve additional or different types of distractions.<ref name=masterclass/> A study identified children as the most common source of distraction for remote workers, followed by spouses, pets, neighbors, and solicitors. Access to appropriate tools and facilities has also been cited as a potential challenge for maintaining focus during remote work,<ref>{{cite web |title=4 Reasons Why Working From Home Can be Unproductive |url=https://www.corporatesuites.com/4-reasons-working-home-can-unproductive/ |publisher=Corporate Suites |date=June 19, 2015}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=The source article is a sales pitch.|date=May 2022}} though [[coworking]] spaces and short-term office rentals can help address this issue. 

In some countries, such as Romania, national labor inspectorates have been tasked with verifying that remote work environments meet regulatory requirements for health and safety.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etui.org/covid-social-impact/romania/romania-law-on-teleworking-approved |title=Romania: law on teleworking approved | work=[[European Trade Union Institute (ETUI)]] | date=June 10, 2020}}</ref> 

A 2019 study found that the absence of on-site monitoring in remote work arrangements has been associated with the potential for increased distractions and, in some cases, decreased productivity.<ref name="Hunter-2019" />

=== Women burdening an unfair share of domestic work ===
{{See also|Double burden}}
Remote work arrangements can have varying effects depending on workers’ home environments and domestic responsibilities. Analyses of survey data from the United Kingdom in 2010<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McMunn |first1=Anne |last2=Bird |first2=Lauren |last3=Webb |first3=Elizabeth |last4=Sacker |first4=Amanda |date=April 2020 |title=Gender Divisions of Paid and Unpaid Work in Contemporary UK Couples |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0950017019862153 |journal=Work, Employment and Society |language=en |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=155–173 |doi=10.1177/0950017019862153 |issn=0950-0170 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109133044/https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10081119/1/UKHLS%20Gender%20%20Total%20Labor%20WES%20accepted%20copy.pdf |archive-date=January 9, 2024 |access-date=January 8, 2024 |via=Sage Journals}}</ref> and 2020–21<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zamberlan |first1=Anna |last2=Gioachin |first2=Filippo |last3=Gritti |first3=Davide |date=June 1, 2021 |title=Work less, help out more? The persistence of gender inequality in housework and childcare during UK COVID-19 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0276562421000032 |journal=Research in Social Stratification and Mobility |volume=73 |pages=100583 |doi=10.1016/j.rssm.2021.100583 |issn=0276-5624 |access-date=January 8, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sánchez |first1=Alejandra Rodríguez |last2=Fasang |first2=Anette |last3=Harkness |first3=Susan |date=December 16, 2021 |title=Gender division of housework during the COVID-19 pandemic: Temporary shocks or durable change? |url=https://www.demographic-research.org/articles/volume/45/43 |journal=Demographic Research |language=en |volume=45 |pages=1297–1316 |doi=10.4054/DemRes.2021.45.43 |issn=1435-9871 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109133629/https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol45/43/45-43.pdf |archive-date=January 9, 2024 |access-date=January 8, 2024}}</ref> suggest that women are more likely to bear a disproportionate share of domestic work compared to men.

A 2022 study surveying 283 Austrian remote workers cohabiting with an intimate partner during mid-2020 found that women with children reported more exhausting experiences with home-based work, including longer working hours and less distinct boundaries between work and personal life. Women without children reported improved concentration and positive outcomes when working from home.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hartner-Tiefenthaler |first1=Martina |last2=Zedlacher |first2=Eva |last3=el Sehity |first3=Tarek Josef |date=August 4, 2022 |title=Remote workers' free associations with working from home during the COVID-19 pandemic in Austria: The interaction between children and gender |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=13 |pages=859020 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2022.859020 |pmc=9391219 |pmid=35996573 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

A separate study conducted in 2021–2022, surveying workers from 26 countries, found that women valued the option to work from home more highly than men in nearly all countries surveyed. Additionally, among both men and women, those with children generally placed a higher value on remote work options compared to those without children.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Aksoy |first1=Cevat |last2=Barrero |first2=Jose |last3=Bloom |first3=Nicholas |last4=Davis |first4=Steven |last5=Dolls |first5=Mathias |last6=Zarate |first6=Pablo |date=September 2022 |title=Working From Home Around the World |url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30446/w30446.pdf |journal=NBER |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108174059/https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w30446/w30446.pdf |archive-date=January 8, 2024}}</ref>

A 2021 study indicated that remote work may be associated with increased risks of intimate partner violence for women.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mojahed |first1=A |last2=Brym |first2=S |last3=Hense |first3=H |date=2021 |title=Rapid review on the associations of social and geographical isolation and intimate partner violence |journal=Frontiers in Psychiatry |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fpsyt.2021.578150 |doi-access=free |pmid=33927649 |pmc=8076499 }}</ref> Studies conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic found that women working from home had higher odds of experiencing intimate partner violence, particularly psychological violence, compared to those working on-site.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mial |first1=N |last2=Francis |first2=SC |last3=Stockl |first3=H |date=2023 |title=Working from home and intimate partner violence among cis-women during the COVID-19 pandemic |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=965 |doi=10.1186/s12889-023-15785-7 |doi-access=free |pmid=37237282 |pmc=10214313 }}</ref> Contributing factors included social isolation, increased access by abusers, and economic stressors such as job loss. Although these risks were heightened during the pandemic, some factors may persist beyond the immediate COVID-19 context, highlighting ongoing concerns regarding personal safety for vulnerable individuals working remotely.

The shift to remote work has also been associated with amplifying pre-existing gender disparities. Women with family responsibilities often experienced an increased domestic workload, including childcare and household management, compared to men. This additional burden has been linked to higher rates of anxiety and depression among women with families, whereas such effects were not observed among women without caregiving responsibilities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Frank |first1=E |last2=Zhao |first2=Z |last3=Fang |first3=Y |date=2021 |title=Experiences of work-family conflict and mental health symptoms by gender among physician parents during the COVID-19 pandemic |journal=JAMA Network Open |volume=4 |issue=11 |pages=e2134315 |doi=10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.34315 |pmid=34767022 |pmc=8590168 }}</ref>While much of the research linking psychological distress to remote work focuses on the pandemic period,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matthews |first1=T |last2=Chen |first2=L |last3=Zhang |first3=D |date=2022 |title=Gender differences in working from home and psychological distress - A national survey of U.S. employees during the COVID-19 pandemic |journal=Industrial Health |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=334–344 |doi=10.2486/indhealth.2022-0077 |pmid=35569955 |pmc=9453567 |bibcode=2022IndHe..60..334M }}</ref> continued attention to the intersection of domestic roles and remote work environments remains relevant in the post-pandemic workplace.

=== Employee pressure to be seen as valuable ===
Remote workers may experience pressure to produce higher levels of output in order to demonstrate their value and counter perceptions that remote work involves reduced productivity. This pressure, combined with limited coworker interactions and feelings of isolation, was associated with lower levels of job engagement among remote workers in a 2012 study.<ref name="Sardes"/> A 2006 study found that higher-quality relationships with teammates can decrease remote workers' job satisfaction, possibly due to frustrations arising from the challenges of maintaining relationships through digital communication.<ref name="golden006">{{cite journal | last1=Golden | first1=T. D. | year=2006 | title=Avoiding depletion in virtual work: Telework and the intervening impact of work exhaustion on commitment and turnover intentions | journal=Journal of Vocational Behavior | volume=69 | pages=176–187 | doi=10.1016/j.jvb.2006.02.003| s2cid=143888296 }}</ref> However, coworker support and participation in virtual social groups aimed at team building have been found to positively influence job satisfaction in studies conducted in 2001 and 2002,<ref name="Bailey">{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-13502-004 | last1=Bailey | first1=Diane E. | last2=Kurland | first2=Nancy B. | year=2002 | title=A review of telework research: findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work | journal=[[Journal of Organizational Behavior]] | volume=23 | issue=4 | pages=383–400 | doi=10.1002/job.144| s2cid=727943 }}</ref><ref name="Ilozor">{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-03330-002 | last1=Ilozor | first1=Doreen B. | last2=Ilozor | first2=Ben D. | last3=Carr | first3=John | year=2001 | title=Management communication strategies determine job satisfaction in telecommuting | journal=Journal of Management Development | volume=20 | issue=6 | pages=495–507 | doi=10.1108/02621710110399783}}</ref> potentially through increased opportunities for skill use and greater perceived task significance.

A 2005 study suggested that the relationship between remote work and job satisfaction is complex. Initial increases in remote work may be associated with higher job satisfaction, likely due to greater autonomy. However, as the extent of remote work increases further, declines in feedback and task significance may lead to a plateau or slight decline in satisfaction.<ref name="Golden05">{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2005-02634-009 | last1=Golden | first1=Timothy D. | last2=Veiga | first2=John F. | year=2005 | title=The impact of extent of telecommuting on job satisfaction: Resolving inconsistent findings | journal=[[Journal of Management]] | volume=31 | issue=2 | pages=301–318 | doi=10.1177/0149206304271768 | s2cid=14021410}}</ref> Thus, the amount of remote work plays an important role in shaping its overall impact on employee satisfaction. Barriers to the continued expansion of remote work include employer concerns about trust and employees’ feelings of personal disconnection.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.discovery.org/a/4235/ | title=Slow But Steady "Telework Revolution" Eyed | first=Matt | last=Rosenberg | publisher=[[Discovery Institute]] | date=September 26, 2007}}</ref>

Working in a shared office environment may enhance opportunities for collaboration and professional development, potentially contributing to increased employee effectiveness.<ref>{{Cite web |title=20 Tips for Working From Home |url=https://www.pcmag.com/how-to/get-organized-20-tips-for-working-from-home |access-date=December 15, 2022 |website=PCMAG |language=en}}</ref>

===Challenges to team building; focus on the individual===
In traditional office environments, communication and relationship-building among employees and supervisors often occur naturally through day-to-day interactions. In remote work settings, maintaining these relationships typically requires more deliberate effort, particularly for new employees who need to learn organizational norms and practices while working remotely.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CbuCDwAAQBAJ | last=Harpelund | first=Christian |title=Onboarding: Getting New Hires off to a Flying Start | publisher=[[Emerald Group Publishing]] | date=January 21, 2019| isbn=978-1-78769-583-2 }}</ref>

Job characteristics such as skill variety, task identity, and task significance contribute to employees' perceptions of the meaningfulness of their work.<ref name="Hackman1976"/> Skill variety refers to the range of activities and skills required to complete a job, with greater skill variety associated with increased job challenge and a stronger sense of meaningfulness and engagement.<ref name="Oldham 2005">[[Greg Oldham|Oldham, G. R.]], & Hackman, J. R. (2005). How job characteristics theory happened. In The Oxford handbook of management theory: The process of theory development, 151-170.</ref><ref name="Hackman1976"/> Remote work does not necessarily change the skill variety or perceived meaningfulness of tasks compared to in-office work; however, opportunities for skill development may differ based on whether work is structured individually or collaboratively. Tasks focused primarily on individual work may offer fewer chances to apply a wide range of skills compared to teamwork-based activities.<ref name="Shamir">{{cite journal | doi=10.5465/amr.1985.4278957 | title=Work-At-Home and the Quality of Working Life | year=1985 | last1=Shamir | first1=Boas | last2=Salomon | first2=Ilan | journal=[[Academy of Management Review]] | volume=10 | issue=3 | pages=455–464 | jstor=258127 }}</ref>

Task identity is defined as the extent to which an individual can complete an entire piece of work or identify with a complete project, rather than contributing only a small part. Task significance refers to the degree to which work has a substantial impact on others within or outside the organization.<ref name="Hackman1976"/><ref name="Shamir"/> While remote work may not inherently alter these job characteristics, their presence remains important in shaping remote workers' attitudes and work outcomes.

According to [[Vivek Murthy]] in his book ''Together: The Healing Power of Human Connection in a Sometimes Lonely World'', face-to-face meetings, in-person collaboration, and brief informal interactions in the workplace contribute to a [[Belongingness|sense of belonging]] and community among workers.<ref name=downside>{{Cite magazine| url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90700878/remote-work-has-a-downside-heres-why-i-want-to-go-back-to-the-office | title=Remote work has a downside. Here's why I want to go back to the office | first=Mark C. | last=Crowley | magazine=[[Fast Company]] | date=November 30, 2021|access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXtFzwEACAAJ | title=Together: The Healing Power of Human Connection in a Sometimes Lonely World | first=Vivek | last=Murthy | date=April 11, 2023 | author-link=Vivek Murthy | publisher=[[HarperCollins]]| isbn=9780062913302 }}</ref>

===Isolation and mental health===
Research by psychologist [[Julianne Holt-Lunstad]] at [[Brigham Young University]] has indicated that [[social integration]] is one of the strongest predictors of longevity.<ref name=downside/><ref>{{Cite journal | title=A pandemic of social isolation? | first=Julianne | last=Holt-Lunstad | journal=World Psychiatry | author-link=Julianne Holt-Lunstad | publisher=[[Wiley Online Library]] | date=January 12, 2021| volume=20 | issue=1 | pages=55–56 | doi=10.1002/wps.20839 | pmid=33432754 | pmc=7801834 }}</ref> Similarly, a study conducted by researchers at the [[University of Chicago]] found that routine social interactions can benefit mental health.<ref name="downside" /><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://news.uchicago.edu/story/cities-depression-lower-rates-mental-health-psychology-socioeconomic-networks | title=How do cities impact mental health? A new study finds lower rates of depression | first=Sarah | last=Steimer | work=[[University of Chicago]] | date=July 28, 2021|access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref>

Workplace relationships also play a role in employee commitment. A 2018 study by [[Sigal G. Barsade]] found that employees experiencing greater loneliness reported feeling less committed to their employers and coworkers.<ref name="downside" /><ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://faculty.wharton.upenn.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Ozcelik-and-Barsade_WorkplaceLoneliness_2018.pdf|title=No Employee an Island: Workplace Loneliness and Job Performance|first1=Hakan|last1=Ozcelik|first2=Sigal G.|last2=Barsade|author-link2=Sigal G. Barsade|journal=[[Academy of Management Journal]]|volume=61|number=6|pages=2343–2366|doi=10.5465/amj.2015.1066|publisher=[[Academy of Management]]|year=2018|s2cid=149199657 |access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref> Remote work, by reducing opportunities for informal interaction, can hinder the development of workplace friendships.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/09/24/working-home-productivity-pandemic-remote/ | title=You may get more work done at home. But you'd have better ideas at the office. | first1=Edward |last1=Glaeser | first2=David | last2=Cutler | newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] | date=September 24, 2021}}</ref><ref name="masterclass" />

Concerns have been raised that remote work might negatively affect career progression and workplace relationships. However, a 2007 study found no overall detrimental effects on the quality of workplace relationships or career outcomes among remote workers. In fact, remote work was associated with improvements in employee-supervisor relationships, and job satisfaction was partly linked to the quality of these relationships. The study noted that only high-intensity remote work—defined as working remotely more than 2.5 days per week—was associated with weaker relationships among coworkers, although it also reduced work-family conflict.<ref name="positive" /><ref name="consequences" />

Individual responses to the characteristics of remote work may vary. According to job characteristics theory from the 1970s, the degree to which employees respond to job features such as autonomy and feedback is influenced by their personal need for accomplishment and development, referred to as "growth need strength".<ref name="Hackman1971" /> Employees with higher growth need strength may respond more positively to increased autonomy and more negatively to reduced feedback in remote work environments than those with lower growth need strength.

A 2021 report from Prudential claimed that a majority of workers preferred a hybrid model combining remote and in-person work. The report also indicated that two-thirds of workers believed in-person interactions were important for career advancement. Fully remote workers were more likely to feel hesitant about taking vacations, to perceive a need to be constantly available, and to report feelings of isolation. Overall, the findings suggested that while workers value flexibility, many also wished to retain the benefits associated with in-person workplace interactions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Workplace in a Post-COVID World |url=https://mcguiredevelopment.com/blog/the-workplace-in-a-post-covid-world/ |website=McGuire Development Company |date=August 10, 2021 }}</ref>

===Information security===
Effective remote work requires appropriate training, tools, and technologies. Remote work arrangements can introduce [[Computer security|cybersecurity]] risks, and following recommended best practices is important for maintaining security. Common guidelines include using antivirus software, restricting family member access to work devices, covering webcams when not in use, utilizing virtual private networks (VPNs), relying on centralized storage solutions, creating strong and secure passwords, and exercising caution with email communications to guard against scams and security breaches.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://usa.kaspersky.com/resource-center/threats/remote-working-how-to-stay-safe | title=Cyber Security Risks: Best Practices for Working from Home and Remotely | publisher=[[Kaspersky Lab]]}}</ref>

In 2021, a ranking based on data breaches, stolen records, privacy laws, victim counts, and financial losses identified Vermont, South Carolina, South Dakota, Alabama, and Nebraska as the top five safest states for remote workers in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web | title=The Safest States for Telecommuters | url=https://go.verizon.com/resources/safest-most-dangerous-states-telecommuting/ | website=Verizon Resource Center |date=February 17, 2021}}</ref>

A 2020 survey of over 1,000 remote workers found that 59% of respondents felt more cyber-secure when working in-office compared to working from home.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/bryanrobinson/2020/06/19/is-working-remote-a-blessing-or-burden-weighing-the-pros-and-cons/ | title=Is Working Remote A Blessing Or Burden? Weighing The Pros And Cons | first=Bryan | last=Robinson | work=[[Forbes]] | date=June 19, 2020 | url-access=limited}}</ref> A survey conducted by FlexJobs found that 28% of remote workers reported experiencing technical problems, and 26% cited Wi-Fi connectivity issues as challenges.<ref name="The Balance" />

===Loss of control by management===
Remote work may sometimes be viewed cautiously by management due to concerns about reduced managerial control.<ref name="Hartman">{{cite journal | last1=Hartman | first1=Richard I. | last2=Stoner | first2=Charles R. | last3=Arora | first3=Raj | year=1991 | title=An investigation of selected variables affecting telecommuting productivity and satisfaction | journal=[[Journal of Business and Psychology]] | volume=6 | issue=2| pages=207–225 | doi=10.1007/bf01126709| jstor=25092331 | s2cid=144736120}}</ref> Research has found that managers may exhibit bias against employees who are not physically present in the office, with perceptions of employee contribution influenced more by visibility than by the actual quality of work performed.<ref name="Madell-2022" />

===Alleged drop in worker productivity===
Research on the relationship between remote work and productivity has produced mixed findings. Some studies have indicated that remote work can increase worker productivity,<ref name="Hill">{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0001879103000423 | last1=Hill | first1=E. Jeffrey | last2=Ferris | first2=Maria | last3=Märtinson | first3=V. | year=2003 | title=Does it matter where you work? A comparison of how three work venues (traditional office, virtual office, and home office) influence aspects of work and personal/family life | journal=[[Journal of Vocational Behavior]] | volume=63 | issue=2 | pages=220–241 | doi=10.1016/s0001-8791(03)00042-3}}</ref> with remote employees receiving higher supervisor ratings and performance appraisals compared to on-site workers.<ref name=consequences/> As with job attitudes, the amount of time spent remote working may influence the relationship between remote work and job performance.<ref name="Golden 2008"/>

Productivity declines among remote workers have been attributed in some cases to inadequate home office setups.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.apty.io/blog/remote-working-factors-that-cause-low-employee-productivity | title=Remote Working: Understanding the Factors That Cause Low Employee Productivity | work=Apty | date=March 30, 2022}}</ref> Nevertheless, some surveys have reported that over two-thirds of employers observed increased productivity among their remote workforces, although findings vary.{{citation needed|date=September 2023}}

Organizations may encounter challenges when shifting to remote work models, particularly where traditional management practices rely on direct observation rather than results-based evaluation. This reliance can present obstacles to effective remote management. Additionally, issues related to liability and workers' compensation may arise in remote work arrangements.<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://sloanreview.mit.edu/article/two-cheers-for-the-virtual-office/| title=Two Cheers for the Virtual Office | first1=Thomas H. | last1=Davenport | first2=Keri | last2=Pearlson | work=[[MIT Sloan Management Review]] | date=July 15, 1998}}</ref>

A 2008 study found that the more time employees spent working remotely, the lower their perceived productivity was among managers.<ref name="Golden 2008">{{cite journal | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-16251-016 | last1=Golden | first1=T. D. | last2=Veiga | first2=J. F. | last3=Dino | first3=R. N. | year=2008 | title=The impact of professional isolation on teleworker job performance and turnover intentions: Does time spent teleworking, interacting face-to-face, or having access to communication-enhancing technology matter? | journal=[[Journal of Applied Psychology]] | volume=93 | issue=6| pages=1412–1421 | doi=10.1037/a0012722| pmid=19025257}}</ref>

Research examining employee mindsets has also highlighted the role of psychological factors in remote work outcomes. The study ''Remote work mindsets predict emotions and productivity in home office: a longitudinal study of knowledge workers during the Covid-19 pandemic'' found that knowledge workers with a fixed mindset toward remote work experienced more negative emotions and fewer positive emotions, leading to perceptions of lower productivity. Encouraging a growth mindset—viewing remote work as a skill that can be developed—was suggested as a strategy for improving employee experiences and productivity.<ref name=":2" />

===Taxation complexity===
Remote workers are typically subject to taxation based on several factors, including their place of residence, the location of their employer, and the tax laws of the applicable jurisdictions. In most cases, workers are taxed according to the rules of the jurisdiction in which they reside. International tax treaties may also influence the taxation of remote workers by providing mechanisms to prevent double taxation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stauffer |first=Jason |title=Working remotely? Here are 4 things to pay attention to this tax season |url=https://www.cnbc.com/select/remote-work-tax-tips/ |access-date=June 8, 2023 |website=CNBC |date=February 6, 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

Understanding the tax implications of remote work is important, particularly when working from a different jurisdiction than the employer's location. Research indicates that remote workers often have limited awareness of the tax consequences associated with cross-jurisdictional work arrangements.<ref>{{Cite press release | url=https://www.aicpa.org/press/pressreleases/2020/aicpa-harris-poll-reveals-taxpayers-unaware-of-state-tax-liabilities-related-to-working-remotely.html | title=AICPA/Harris Poll Reveals Many Taxpayers Unaware of State Tax Liabilities Related to Working Remotely | publisher=[[AICPA]] | date=November 5, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/personal-finance/many-taxpayers-could-face-surprise-bill-over-remote-work-misconceptions-study-finds | title=Many taxpayers could face surprise bill over remote work misconceptions, study finds | first=Brittany De | last=Lea | work=[[FOXBusiness]] | date=November 10, 2020}}</ref>

===Health impacts due to increased hours working===
A 2021 report by the [[World Health Organization]] and the [[International Labour Organization]] indicated that remote work could contribute to increased health risks if it leads to working more than 55 hours per week wherever it would be legal to do so.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Pega | first1=Frank | last2=Náfrádi | first2=Bálint | display-authors=etal. | date=May 17, 2021 | title=Global, regional, and national burdens of ischemic heart disease and stroke attributable to exposure to long working hours for 194 countries, 2000–2016: A systematic analysis from the WHO/ILO Joint Estimates of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury |journal=[[Environment International]] |volume=154 | page=106595 | doi=10.1016/j.envint.2021.106595 | pmid=34011457 | pmc=8204267 | doi-access=free| bibcode=2021EnInt.15406595P }}</ref> Extended working hours have been associated with negative impacts on health, well-being, and sleep, with contributing factors including disruptions to daily routines, heightened anxiety and worry, feelings of isolation, increased family and work-related stress, and prolonged screen time.<ref name="Majumdar20"/>