Editing Biosensor (section)

==Applications==
[[File:Biosensing of influenza virus using an antibody-modified boron-doped diamond.svg|thumb|Biosensing of influenza virus using an antibody-modified boron-doped diamond]]

There are many potential applications of biosensors of various types. The main requirements for a biosensor approach to be valuable in terms of research and commercial applications are the identification of a target molecule, availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable portable detection systems to be preferred to sensitive laboratory-based techniques in some situations. Some examples are:

* [[Continuous glucose monitor|glucose monitoring in diabetes patients]], other medical health related targets, 
* environmental applications, e.g. the detection of [[pesticides]], detection and determining of [[organophosphate]], and river water contaminants, such as heavy metal ions,<ref>[http://www.cheme.utm.my/staff/saharudin/content/view/24/42/ Saharudin Haron]  {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305044403/http://www.cheme.utm.my/staff/saharudin/content/view/24/42/ |date=5 March 2016  }} and Asim K. Ray (2006) [https://web.archive.org/web/20141102041015/http://www.cheme.utm.my/staff/saharudin/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=24&Itemid=42 Optical biodetection of cadmium and lead ions in water.] ''Medical Engineering and Physics'', 28 (10). pp. 978–981.</ref> 
* remote sensing of airborne [[bacterium|bacteria]], e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities, 
* remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,<ref name="MolluSCAN eye" /> 
* detection of pathogens, 
* determining levels of toxic substances before and after [[bioremediation]], 
* routine analytical measurement of [[folic acid]], [[biotin]], [[vitamin B12]] and [[pantothenic acid]] as an alternative to [[microbiological assay]], 
* determination of [[drug residue]]s in food, such as [[antibiotics]] and [[growth promoters]], particularly meat and honey, 
* drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds, 
* protein engineering in biosensors,<ref>{{cite book | doi=10.1007/10_2007_080 |pmid = 17960341| title=Protein Engineering and Electrochemical Biosensors | volume=109 | pages=65–96| series=Advances in Biochemical Engineering/Biotechnology | year=2008 | last1=Lambrianou | first1=Andreas | last2=Demin | first2=Soren | last3=Hall | first3=Elizabeth A. H | isbn=978-3-540-75200-4 }}</ref> and 
* detection of toxic metabolites such as [[mycotoxin]]s.

A common example of a commercial biosensor is the [[blood glucose]] biosensor, which uses the enzyme [[glucose oxidase]] to break blood glucose down. In doing so it first oxidizes glucose and uses two electrons to reduce the FAD (a component of the enzyme) to FADH<sub>2</sub>. This in turn is oxidized by the electrode in a number of steps. The resulting current is a measure of the concentration of glucose. In this case, the electrode is the transducer and the enzyme is the biologically active component.

A [[Domestic Canary#Miner's canary|canary in a cage]], as used by miners to warn of gas, could be considered a biosensor. Many of today's biosensor applications are similar, in that they use organisms which respond to [[toxic]] substances at a much lower concentrations than humans can detect to warn of their presence. Such devices can be used in [[environmental monitoring]],<ref name="MolluSCAN eye">{{cite web|title=MolluSCAN eye|url=http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en|website=MolluSCAN eye|publisher=CNRS & Université de Bordeaux|access-date=24 June 2015|archive-date=13 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113173444/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en}}</ref> trace gas detection and in water treatment facilities.

===Glucose monitoring===
{{main|Blood glucose monitoring}}
Commercially available glucose monitors rely on [[Blood glucose monitoring|amperometric sensing of glucose]] by means of [[glucose oxidase]], which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into novel sensing methods, such as [[fluorescent glucose biosensors]].<ref name="ghoshdastider">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ghoshdastider U, Wu R, Trzaskowski B, Mlynarczyk K, Miszta P, Gurusaran M, Viswanathan S, Renugopalakrishnan V, Filipek S | title = Nano-Encapsulation of Glucose Oxidase Dimer by Graphene | journal = RSC Advances | volume = 5 | issue = 18 | pages = 13570–78 | date = 2015 | doi = 10.1039/C4RA16852F }}</ref>

===Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor===
The interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS) is based on the principles of [[Interference (wave propagation)|optical interference]] and consists of a silicon-silicon oxide substrate, standard optics, and low-powered coherent LEDs. When light is illuminated through a low magnification objective onto the layered silicon-silicon oxide substrate, an interferometric signature is produced. As biomass, which has a similar [[index of refraction]] as silicon oxide, accumulates on the substrate surface, a change in the interferometric signature occurs and the change can be correlated to a quantifiable mass. ''Daaboul et al.'' used IRIS to yield a label-free sensitivity of approximately 19&nbsp;ng/mL.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Daaboul | first1 = G.G. | display-authors = etal   | year = 2010 | title = LED-based Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor for quantitative dynamic monitoring of biomolecular interactions| journal = Biosens. Bioelectron. | volume =  26| issue = 5| pages =  2221–2227| doi = 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.038 | pmid = 20980139 }}</ref> ''Ahn et al.'' improved the sensitivity of IRIS through a mass tagging technique.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ahn | first1 = S. | last2 = Freedman | first2 = D. S. | last3 = Massari | first3 = P. | last4 = Cabodi | first4 = M. | last5 = Ünlü | first5 = M. S. | year = 2013 | title = A Mass-Tagging Approach for Enhanced Sensitivity of Dynamic Cytokine Detection Using a Label-Free Biosensor | journal = Langmuir | volume = 29 | issue = 17| pages = 5369–5376 | doi=10.1021/la400982h| pmid = 23547938 }}</ref>

Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence protein microarray variability.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reddington | first1 = A. | last2 = Trueb | first2 = J. T. | last3 = Freedman | first3 = D. S. | last4 = Tuysuzoglu | first4 = A. | last5 = Daaboul | first5 = G. G. | last6 = Lopez | first6 = C. A. | last7 = Karl | first7 = W. C. | last8 = Connor | first8 = J. H. | last9 = Fawcett | first9 = H. E. | last10 = Ünlü | first10 = M. S. | year = 2013 | title = An Interferometric Reflectance Imaging Sensor for Point of Care Viral Diagnostics | journal = IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering | volume = 60 | issue = 12| pages = 3276–3283 | doi=10.1109/tbme.2013.2272666| pmid = 24271115 | pmc = 4041624 }}</ref> Briefly, the variation in fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Monroe | first1 = M. R. | last2 = Reddington | first2 = A. | last3 = Collins | first3 = A. D. | last4 = Laboda | first4 = C. D. | last5 = Cretich | first5 = M. | last6 = Chiari | first6 = M. | last7 = Little | first7 = F. F. | last8 = Ünlü | first8 = M. S. | year = 2011 | title = Multiplexed method to calibrate and quantitate fluorescence signal for allergen-specific IgE | journal = Analytical Chemistry | volume =  83| issue = 24| pages = 9485–9491| doi=10.1021/ac202212k | pmid=22060132 | pmc=3395232}}</ref> To correct for any variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired in the label-free modality.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> IRIS has also been adapted to perform single [[nanoparticle]] counting by simply switching the low magnification objective used for label-free biomass quantification to a higher objective magnification.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yurt | first1 = A. | last2 = Daaboul | first2 = G. G. | last3 = Connor | first3 = J. H. | last4 = Goldberg | first4 = B. B. | last5 = Ünlü | first5 = M. S. | year = 2012 | title = Single nanoparticle detectors for biological applications | journal = Nanoscale | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 715–726 | doi=10.1039/c2nr11562j| pmid = 22214976 | pmc = 3759154 |bibcode = 2012Nanos...4..715Y }}</ref><ref>C. A. Lopez, G. G. Daaboul, R. S. Vedula, E. Ozkumur, D. A. Bergstein, T. W. Geisbert, H. Fawcett, B. B. Goldberg, J. H. Connor, and M. S. Ünlü, "Label-free multiplexed virus detection using spectral reflectance imaging," Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 2011</ref> This modality enables size discrimination in complex human biological samples. ''Monroe et al.'' used IRIS to quantify protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and determined allergen sensitization in characterized human blood samples using zero sample processing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Monroe | first1 = M. R. | last2 = Daaboul | first2 = G. G. | last3 = Tuysuzoglu | first3 = A. | last4 = Lopez | first4 = C. A. | last5 = Little | first5 = F. F. | last6 = Ünlü | first6 = M. S. | year = 2013 | title = Single Nanoparticle Detection for Multiplexed Protein Diagnostics with Attomolar Sensitivity in Serum and Unprocessed Whole Blood | journal = Analytical Chemistry | volume = 85 | issue = 7| pages = 3698–3706 | doi=10.1021/ac4000514 | pmid=23469929 | pmc=3690328}}</ref> Other practical uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Daaboul | first1 = G. G. | last2 = Yurt | first2 = A. | last3 = Zhang | first3 = X. | last4 = Hwang | first4 = G. M. | last5 = Goldberg | first5 = B. B. | last6 = Ünlü | first6 = M. S. | year = 2010 | title = High-Throughput Detection and Sizing of Individual Low-Index Nanoparticles and Viruses for Pathogen Identification | journal = Nano Letters | volume =  10| issue = 11| pages = 4727–4731 | doi=10.1021/nl103210p | pmid=20964282| bibcode = 2010NanoL..10.4727D }}</ref>

===Food analysis===
There are several applications of biosensors in food analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Svigelj |first1=Rossella |last2=Zuliani |first2=Ivan |last3=Grazioli |first3=Cristian |last4=Dossi |first4=Nicolò |last5=Toniolo |first5=Rosanna |title=An Effective Label-Free Electrochemical Aptasensor Based on Gold Nanoparticles for Gluten Detection |journal=Nanomaterials |date=17 March 2022 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=987 |doi=10.3390/nano12060987|pmid=35335800 |pmc=8953296 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Svigelj |first1=Rossella |last2=Dossi |first2=Nicolo |last3=Pizzolato |first3=Stefania |last4=Toniolo |first4=Rosanna |last5=Miranda-Castro |first5=Rebeca |last6=de-los-Santos-Álvarez |first6=Noemí |last7=Lobo-Castañón |first7=María Jesús |title=Truncated aptamers as selective receptors in a gluten sensor supporting direct measurement in a deep eutectic solvent |journal=Biosensors and Bioelectronics |date=1 October 2020 |volume=165 |pages=112339 |doi=10.1016/j.bios.2020.112339 |pmid=32729482 |hdl=10651/57640 |s2cid=219902328 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0956566320303341 |language=en |issn=0956-5663|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Svigelj |first1=Rossella |last2=Dossi |first2=Nicolò |last3=Grazioli |first3=Cristian |last4=Toniolo |first4=Rosanna |title=Paper-based aptamer-antibody biosensor for gluten detection in a deep eutectic solvent (DES) |journal=Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry |date=6 October 2021 |volume=414 |issue=11 |pages=3341–3348 |doi=10.1007/s00216-021-03653-5 |pmid=34617152 |pmc=8494473 |language=en |issn=1618-2650}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bolognesi |first1=Margherita |last2=Prosa |first2=Mario |last3=Toerker |first3=Michael |last4=Lopez Sanchez |first4=Laura |last5=Wieczorek |first5=Martin |last6=Giacomelli |first6=Caterina |last7=Benvenuti |first7=Emilia |last8=Pellacani |first8=Paola |last9=Elferink |first9=Alexander |last10=Morschhauser |first10=Andreas |last11=Sola |first11=Laura |last12=Damin |first12=Francesco |last13=Chiari |first13=Marcella |last14=Whatton |first14=Mark |last15=Haenni |first15=Etienne |date=June 2023 |title=A Fully Integrated Miniaturized Optical Biosensor for Fast and Multiplexing Plasmonic Detection of High- and Low-Molecular-Weight Analytes |journal=Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=35 |issue=26 |pages=e2208719 |doi=10.1002/adma.202208719 |pmid=36932736 |bibcode=2023AdM....3508719B |s2cid=257603757 |issn=0935-9648|doi-access=free }}</ref> In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal.

A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the detection and measurement of small molecules such as [[water-soluble vitamins]] and chemical contaminants ([[drug residues]]) such as [[Sulfonamide (medicine)|sulfonamides]] and [[Beta-agonists]] have been developed for use on [[Surface plasmon resonance|SPR]] based sensor systems, often adapted from existing [[ELISA]] or other immunological assay. These are in widespread use across the food industry.

===Detection/monitoring of pollutants===
Biosensors could be used to monitor [[Air pollution#Monitoring|air]], [[Water pollution#Measurement|water]], and soil pollutants such as pesticides, potentially carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic substances and endocrine disrupting chemicals.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Justino |first1=Celine I. L. |last2=Duarte |first2=Armando C. |last3=Rocha-Santos |first3=Teresa A. P. |title=Recent Progress in Biosensors for Environmental Monitoring: A Review |journal=Sensors (Basel, Switzerland) |date=December 2017 |volume=17 |issue=12 |page=2918 |doi=10.3390/s17122918 |pmid=29244756 |pmc=5750672 |bibcode=2017Senso..17.2918J |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="10.1002/bab.1621"/>

For example, [[Nanobiotechnology#Bionanotechnology|bionanotechnologists]] developed a viable biosensor, {{abbr|2=RNA Output Sensors Activated by Ligand INDuction|ROSALIND 2.0}}, that can detect levels of diverse [[water pollution|water pollutants]].<ref>{{cite news |title=DNA computer could tell you if your drinking water is contaminated |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2308396-dna-computer-could-tell-you-if-your-drinking-water-is-contaminated/ |access-date=16 March 2022 |work=New Scientist}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Jaeyoung K. |last2=Archuleta |first2=Chloé M. |last3=Alam |first3=Khalid K. |last4=Lucks |first4=Julius B. |title=Programming cell-free biosensors with DNA strand displacement circuits |journal=Nature Chemical Biology |date=17 February 2022 |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=385–393 |doi=10.1038/s41589-021-00962-9 |pmid=35177837 |pmc=8964419 |language=en |issn=1552-4469}}</ref>

===Ozone measurement===
Because [[ozone]] filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much [[ultraviolet light]] reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects [[Marine life|marine organisms]], especially [[plankton]] (floating microorganisms) and [[virus]]es that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO<sub>2</sub> for photosynthesis.

Deneb Karentz, a researcher at the Laboratory of Radio-biology and Environmental Health ([[University of California, San Francisco]]) has devised a simple method for measuring ultraviolet penetration and intensity. Working in the Antarctic Ocean, she submerged to various depths thin plastic bags containing special strains of ''E. coli'' that are almost totally unable to repair ultraviolet radiation damage to their DNA. Bacterial death rates in these bags were compared with rates in unexposed control bags of the same organism. The bacterial "biosensors" revealed constant significant ultraviolet damage at depths of 10 m and frequently at 20 and 30 m. Karentz plans additional studies of how ultraviolet may affect seasonal plankton [[Algal bloom|bloom]]s (growth spurts) in the oceans.<ref>J. G. Black,"Principles and explorations", edition 5th.</ref>

=== Metastatic cancer cell detection ===

Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another via either the circulatory system or lymphatic system.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hanahan | first1 = Douglas | last2 = Weinberg | first2 = Robert A. | year = 2011 | title = Hallmarks of Cancer: The Next Generation | journal = Cell | volume = 144 | issue = 5| pages = 646–74 | doi=10.1016/j.cell.2011.02.013 | pmid=21376230| doi-access = free }}</ref> Unlike radiology imaging tests (mammograms), which send forms of energy (x-rays, magnetic fields, etc.) through the body to only take interior pictures, biosensors have the potential to directly test the malignant power of the tumor. The combination of a biological and detector element allows for a small sample requirement, a compact design, rapid signals, rapid detection, high selectivity and high sensitivity for the analyte being studied. Compared to the usual radiology imaging tests biosensors have the advantage of not only finding out how far cancer has spread and checking if treatment is effective but also are cheaper, more efficient (in time, cost and productivity) ways to assess metastaticity in early stages of cancer.

Biological engineering researchers have created oncological biosensors for breast cancer.<ref name="Atay, Seda 2016">{{cite journal | last1 = Atay | first1 = Seda | last2 = Pişkin | first2 = Kevser | last3 = Yılmaz | first3 = Fatma | last4 = Çakır | first4 = Canan | last5 = Yavuz | first5 = Handan | last6 = Denizli | first6 = Adil | year = 2016 | title = Quartz Crystal Microbalance Based Biosensors for Detecting Highly Metastatic Breast Cancer Cells via Their Transferrin Receptors | journal = Anal. Methods | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 153–61 | doi = 10.1039/c5ay02898a }}</ref> Breast cancer is the leading common cancer among women worldwide.<ref>Nordqvist, Christian. "Breast Cancer Cancer / Oncology Women's Health / Gynecology Breast Cancer: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments." Medical News Today. N.p., 5 May 2016. Web.</ref> An example would be a transferrin- quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). As a biosensor, [[quartz crystal microbalance]]s produce oscillations in the frequency of the crystal's standing wave from an alternating potential to detect nano-gram mass changes. These biosensors are specifically designed to interact and have high selectivity for receptors on cell (cancerous and normal) surfaces. Ideally, this provides a quantitative detection of cells with this receptor per surface area instead of a qualitative picture detection given by mammograms.

Seda Atay, a biotechnology researcher at Hacettepe University, experimentally observed this specificity and selectivity between a QCM and [[MDA-MB 231]] breast cells, [[MCF 7]] cells, and starved MDA-MB 231 cells in vitro.<ref name="Atay, Seda 2016"/> With other researchers she devised a method of washing these different metastatic leveled cells over the sensors to measure mass shifts due to different quantities of transferrin receptors. Particularly, the metastatic power of breast cancer cells can be determined by Quartz crystal microbalances with nanoparticles and transferrin that would potentially attach to transferrin receptors on cancer cell surfaces. There is very high selectivity for transferrin receptors because they are over-expressed in cancer cells. If cells have high expression of transferrin receptors, which shows their high metastatic power, they have higher affinity and bind more to the QCM that measures the increase in mass. Depending on the magnitude of the nano-gram mass change, the metastatic power can be determined.

Additionally, in the last years, significant attentions have been focused to detect the biomarkers of lung cancer without biopsy. In this regard, biosensors are very attractive and applicable tools for providing rapid, sensitive, specific, stable, cost-effective and non-invasive detections for early lung cancer diagnosis. Thus, cancer biosensors consisting of specific biorecognition molecules such as antibodies, complementary nucleic acid probes or other immobilized biomolecules on a transducer surface. The biorecognition molecules interact specifically with the biomarkers (targets) and the generated biological responses are converted by the transducer into a measurable analytical signal. Depending on the type of biological response, various transducers are utilized in the fabrication of cancer biosensors such as electrochemical, optical and mass-based transducers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Electrochemical biosensors for the detection of lung cancer biomarkers: A review |journal=Talanta |volume=206 |pages=120251 |doi=10.1016/j.talanta.2019.120251 |pmid=31514848 |year=2020 |last1=Khanmohammadi |first1=Akbar |last2=Aghaie |first2=Ali |last3=Vahedi |first3=Ensieh |last4=Qazvini |first4=Ali |last5=Ghanei |first5=Mostafa |last6=Afkhami |first6=Abbas |last7=Hajian |first7=Ali |last8=Bagheri |first8=Hasan |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Pathogen detection ===
{{Expand section|date=July 2021}}
Biosensors could be used for the detection of pathogenic organisms.<ref name="10.1002/bab.1621">{{cite journal |last1=Alhadrami |first1=Hani A. |title=Biosensors: Classifications, medical applications, and future prospective |journal=Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry |date=2018 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=497–508 |doi=10.1002/bab.1621 |pmid=29023994 |s2cid=27115648 |language=en |issn=1470-8744|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of [[SARS-CoV-2]] – that are [[Wearable technology|wearable]] have been developed – such as [[Surgical mask#Research and development|face masks with built-in tests]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Face masks that can diagnose COVID-19 |url=https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-06-masks-covid-.html |access-date=11 July 2021 |work=medicalxpress.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Peter Q. |last2=Soenksen |first2=Luis R. |last3=Donghia |first3=Nina M. |last4=Angenent-Mari |first4=Nicolaas M. |last5=de Puig |first5=Helena |last6=Huang |first6=Ally |last7=Lee |first7=Rose |last8=Slomovic |first8=Shimyn |last9=Galbersanini |first9=Tommaso |last10=Lansberry |first10=Geoffrey |last11=Sallum |first11=Hani M. |last12=Zhao |first12=Evan M. |last13=Niemi |first13=James B. |last14=Collins |first14=James J. |title=Wearable materials with embedded synthetic biology sensors for biomolecule detection |journal=Nature Biotechnology |date=28 June 2021 |volume=39 |issue=11 |pages=1366–1374 |doi=10.1038/s41587-021-00950-3 |pmid=34183860 |s2cid=235673261 |language=en |issn=1546-1696|doi-access=free |hdl=1721.1/131278 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> See also: [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on public transport#Research and development|COVID-19 public transport R&D]]

New types of biosensor-chips could enable novel methods "such as drone-deployed pathogen sensors actively surveying air or wastewater". Protein-binding aptamers could be used for testing for infectious disease pathogens.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Carl W. |last2=Padayatti |first2=Pius S. |last3=Abderrahim |first3=Hadi |last4=Adamiak |first4=Lisa |last5=Alagar |first5=Nolan |last6=Ananthapadmanabhan |first6=Nagaraj |last7=Baek |first7=Jihye |last8=Chinni |first8=Sarat |last9=Choi |first9=Chulmin |last10=Delaney |first10=Kevin J. |last11=Dubielzig |first11=Rich |last12=Frkanec |first12=Julie |last13=Garcia |first13=Chris |last14=Gardner |first14=Calvin |last15=Gebhardt |first15=Daniel |last16=Geiser |first16=Tim |last17=Gutierrez |first17=Zachariah |last18=Hall |first18=Drew A. |last19=Hodges |first19=Andrew P. |last20=Hou |first20=Guangyuan |last21=Jain |first21=Sonal |last22=Jones |first22=Teresa |last23=Lobaton |first23=Raymond |last24=Majzik |first24=Zsolt |last25=Marte |first25=Allen |last26=Mohan |first26=Prateek |last27=Mola |first27=Paul |last28=Mudondo |first28=Paul |last29=Mullinix |first29=James |last30=Nguyen |first30=Thuan |last31=Ollinger |first31=Frederick |last32=Orr |first32=Sarah |last33=Ouyang |first33=Yuxuan |last34=Pan |first34=Paul |last35=Park |first35=Namseok |last36=Porras |first36=David |last37=Prabhu |first37=Keshav |last38=Reese |first38=Cassandra |last39=Ruel |first39=Travers |last40=Sauerbrey |first40=Trevor |last41=Sawyer |first41=Jaymie R. |last42=Sinha |first42=Prem |last43=Tu |first43=Jacky |last44=Venkatesh |first44=A. G. |last45=VijayKumar |first45=Sushmitha |last46=Zheng |first46=Le |last47=Jin |first47=Sungho |last48=Tour |first48=James M. |last49=Church |first49=George M. |last50=Mola |first50=Paul W. |last51=Merriman |first51=Barry |title=Molecular electronics sensors on a scalable semiconductor chip: A platform for single-molecule measurement of binding kinetics and enzyme activity |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=1 February 2022 |volume=119 |issue=5 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2112812119 |doi-access=free |pmid=35074874 |pmc=8812571 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11912812F |language=en |issn=0027-8424}}</ref> Systems of [[electronic skin]]s (or robot skins) with built-in biosensors (or chemical sensors) and human-machine interfaces may enable wearable as well as [[remote sensing|remote sensed]] device- or [[robotic sensing|robotic-sensing]] of pathogens (as well as of several hazardous materials and [[tactile sensor|tactile perceptions]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yu |first1=You |last2=Li |first2=Jiahong |last3=Solomon |first3=Samuel A. |last4=Min |first4=Jihong |last5=Tu |first5=Jiaobing |last6=Guo |first6=Wei |last7=Xu |first7=Changhao |last8=Song |first8=Yu |last9=Gao |first9=Wei |title=All-printed soft human-machine interface for robotic physicochemical sensing |journal=Science Robotics |date=June 1, 2022 |volume=7 |issue=67 |pages=eabn0495 |doi=10.1126/scirobotics.abn0495 |pmid=35648844 |pmc=9302713 |language=en |issn=2470-9476 }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|date=August 2022}}