Editing Criticisms of globalization (section)

=== Language death ===
Globalization has been identified as one of the main factors behind [[language death]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tabb |first=W. K. |date=2014 |title=Global distribution and drivers of language extinction risk |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society |volume=281 |issue=1793 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2014.1574|pmid=25186001 |pmc=4173687 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bromham |first=Lindell |date=2014 |title=Global predictors of language endangerment and the future of linguistic diversity |journal=Nature Ecology & Evolution |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=163–173 |doi=10.1038/s41559-021-01604-y|pmid=34916621 |pmc=8825282 }}</ref> Globalization forces languages into unequal interactions with each other where languages of developing countries with many speakers dominate those with fewer speakers and of developing or undeveloped areas. Speakers of minority languages are pressured economically and socially to abandon their languages in favor of global ones such as [[English language|English]], which results in decline and eventual disappearance of minority languages.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inst.at/trans/17Nr/1-3/1-3_agwuele17.htm |title=Globalization, dying languages and the futility of saving them |last=Agwuele |first=Anthony |publisher=Internet-Zeitschrift für Kulturwissenschaften |date=September 10, 2010 |website=Internet Journal for Cultural Sciences |access-date=August 23, 2022}}</ref>

There is a belief among some that a reduction in the number of spoken languages can be beneficial to humanity, or that language death should be allowed to take place as a natural process.<ref name="Crystal">{{Cite book|last=Crystal |first=David |author-link=David Crystal |date=2000 |title=Language Death |isbn=9781139871549 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139871549}}</ref> This belief is rejected by most linguists, such as [[David Crystal]] and [[Martin J. Ball]].<ref name="Crystal"/> [[Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o]] denounces the view that language death is either beneficial or necessary as an example of [[Social Darwinism]] and [[cultural colonialism]], as language loss leads to [[Anomie|breakdown of social bonds]], and a loss of one's cultural autonomy, self-identity and connection to one's land and ancestors.<ref name="ngugi">{{Cite book|last=wa Thiong'o |first=Ngũgĩ |author-link=Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o |date=1986 |title=Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature |isbn=0852555016 |publisher=James Currey Ltd }}</ref> According to [[Max Weber]], language establishes a connection to and perception of the material reality of its speaker. Language is a way of "mastering reality", providing intimacy and familitarity with the environment and the surrounding world, and enabling participation in the local community. Therefore, Weber argues that language loss causes a displacement of an entire culture, depriving the affected peoples of their community and way of life.<ref name="Ritchey">{{Cite book|last=Ritchey |first=Elyse A. |date=2019 |title=Lenga nòstra?: Local Discourses on Occitan Revitalization in Southwestern France |publisher=University of California, Berkeley |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt1813k8nn/qt1813k8nn.pdf?t=q6z2i9}}</ref> 

[[Salikoko Mufwene]] argues that the progressing language loss is not natural, but artificial - the severity of current language loss exceeds the limits of natural language shift.<ref name="Mufwene">{{Cite journal|last=Mufwene |first=Salikoko |author-link=Salikoko Mufwene |date=2005 |title=Globalization and the myth of killer languages: What's really going on? |journal=Language Evolution |volume=12 |doi=10.5040/9781350934078.ch-012|isbn=978-1-3509-3407-8 |s2cid=46681924 }}</ref> Additionally, natural processes of language shift have been found to progress towards larger amounts of languages, not fewer.<ref name="Mufwene"/> Mufwene also notes that language loss is caused by political, economic and social pressures of the dominant language, rather than any natural process. Many regimes had pursued a "one-language policy" that teaches pupils the dominant language only, while discouraging or penalizing the usage of minority or regional languages;<ref name="Mufwene"/> examples of such policy include the [[dialect card]] in Japan and ''[[vergonha]]'' in France. Speakers of minority languages experience economic or social discrimination, which only ceases once they abandon their language in favour of the dominant one. Therefore, speakers of a language are pressured into abandoning it, rather than voluntarily doing so.<ref name="Mufwene"/> 

David Crystal argues that a global language will fail to bring about peace or global solidarity, listing [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] as examples of overwhelmingly monolingual nations that nevertheless experienced frequent wars. He also argues that language is an example of [[human capital]] that allows individuals to increase the value of their productivity; being [[multilingualism|multilingual]] creates an industry on its own and brings both financial as well as non-financial benefits, such as wider horizons and social acceptance. Crystal also notes that languages strongly influence economy, and are vital to the economic success of many communities; local languages are crucial to [[tourism industry]], arts and local manufacturing.<ref name="Crystal"/> Language is also vital in regards to community cohesion, cultural pride and community self-confidence. [[Language revitalization]] can also lead to the revival of the local industry, and Crystal considers languages "the lubricant of trade".<ref name="Crystal"/>

The need to maintain language diversity in face of globalization has also been analysed from the perspective of biodiversity, and many linguists working with endangered languages have adopted an ecological perspective.<ref name="Crystal"/> Crystal argues that since the strongest ecosystems are those which are most diverse, the humanity was able to expand so widely because it developed "diverse cultures which suit all kinds of environments". Therefore language death diminishes the ability to adapt, as the pool of knowledge from which one can draw is reduced. The view that language diversity is just as important as genetic one has been endorsed by the [[Linguistic Society of America]], with a statement from 1994 saying: "The loss to humankind of genetic diversity in the linguistic world is . . . arguably greater than even the loss of genetic diversity in the biological world, given that the structure of human language represents a considerable testimony to human intellectual achievement."<ref name="Crystal"/> [[Peter Trudgill]] sustains that languages as partial barriers to communication are beneficial, as dominant cultures are unable to penetrate smaller so easily.<ref name="Trudgill">{{Cite journal|last=Trudgill |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Trudgill |date=1991 |title=Language maintenance and language shift: preservation versus extinction |doi=10.1111/j.1473-4192.1991.tb00005.x |pages=61–69 |journal=International Journal of Applied Linguistics |volume=1 |issue=1}}</ref> Every language provides a unique way to describe the world, and retains information regarding the "earlier states of mind of its speakers, and the kinds of cultural contact they had" through preserved idioms and ways of speech. [[Michael E. Krauss]] equates language death with extinction of a species:

{{blockquote|Surely, just as the extinction of any animal species diminishes our world, so does the extinction of any language. Surely we linguists know, and the general public can sense, that any language is a supreme achievement of a uniquely human collective genius, as divine and endless a mystery as a living organism. Should we mourn the loss of Eyak or Ubykh any less than the loss of the panda or California condor?<ref name="Krauss">{{Cite journal|last=Krauss |first=Michael E. |author-link=Michael E. Krauss |date=1992 |title=The world's languages in crisis |doi=10.1353/lan.1992.0075 |pages=4–10 |journal=Language |volume=68 |issue=1 |publisher=Project MUSE|s2cid=146789488 }}</ref>}}

A study of [[Zayse-Zergulla language|Zayse language]] in [[Gamo Zone|Southern Ethiopia]] has also established a link between language preservation and [[biodiversity]] - language loss has been found to negatively impact the [[biodiversity conservation]].<ref name="Unasho">{{Cite journal|last=Unasho |first=Abayneh |date=2013 |title=Language as genes of culture and biodiversity conservation: The case of "Zaysite" language in southern region of Ethiopia |doi=10.4314/ijma.v1i6.1 |pages=13–36 |journal=International Journal of Modern Anthropology |volume=6 |issue=1|doi-access=free }}</ref> Abayneh Unasho argues that "linguistic diversity and biodiversity cannot be seen in isolation, and should be conserved simultaneously in order to guarantee sustainable bicultural diversity."<ref name="Unasho"/> The language and culture of native peoples promotes a respectful and conservationist attitude towards nature and biodiversity; the [[Native American use of fire in ecosystems|fire ecology]] of Native Americans had created a landscape that European colonists considered "untouched, pristine", unaware that it was the effect of Native American [[environmental protection|environmental preservation]].<ref name=":912">{{Cite book|title=Flames in Our Forest|last=Arno & Allison-Bunnel|first=Stephen & Steven|publisher=Island Press|year=2002|isbn=1-55963-882-6|pages=40}}</ref><ref name=":822">{{Cite book|title=Native American land-use practices and ecological impacts|last=Anderson & Moratto|first=M.K, and M.J.|publisher=Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final Report to Congress|year=1996|location=University of California, Davis|pages=187–206}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite book|title=Fire, Native Peoples, and the Natural Landscape|url=https://archive.org/details/firenativepeople00vale|url-access=limited|last=Vale|first=Thomas|publisher=Island Press|year=2002|isbn=155963-889-3|location=United States|pages=[https://archive.org/details/firenativepeople00vale/page/n15 1]–40}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=World fire: The culture of fire on Earth|last=Pyne|first=S.J.|publisher=University of Washington Press|year=1995|location=Seattle, WA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fire Management in the American West|last=Hudson|first=M.|publisher=University Press of Colorado|year=2011|location=Boulder, CO}}</ref> The land management and the [[traditional knowledge]] of the Indigenous peoples is now an important basis for current re-engagement with the landscape and is critical for the correct interpretation of the ecological basis for vegetation distribution.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Barrett|first=S.W.|date=Summer 2004|title=Altered Fire Intervals and Fire Cycles in the Northern Rockies|journal=Fire Management Today|volume=64 |issue=3|pages=25–29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Fire ecology of the Pacific Northwest forests|last=Agee|first=J.K.|publisher=Island Press|year=1993|location=Washington, DC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=J.K.|date=2000|title=Introduction and fire regimes|journal=Wildland Fire in Ecosystems: Effects of Fire on Flora|volume=2|pages=1–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Keeley|first=Jon|date=Summer 2004|title=American Indian Influence on Fire Regimes in California's Coastal Ranges|journal=Fire Management Today|volume=64 |issue=3|pages=15–22}}</ref>

Cultures and communities, especially indigenous ones, that have lost their language experience heightened negative mental health effects, such as substance abuse, trauma, and depression.<ref name="Khawaja2021">Khawaja, M. (2021). Consequences and Remedies of Indigenous Language Loss in Canada. ''Societies, 11'', 89.</ref> A study conducted on Aboriginal youth suicide rates in Canada found that Indigenous communities in which a majority of members speak the traditional language exhibit low suicide rates. Contrary, suicide rates were six times higher in groups where less than half of its members communicate in their ancestral language.<ref>Hallett, D., Chandler, M.J., & Lalonde, C.E. (2007). Aboriginal language knowledge and youth suicide. ''Cognitive Development, 22'', 392-399.</ref> [[Language revitalisation]] has also been found to spur economic growth, increasing both consumer growth and employment; additionally, Indigenous communities in Australia and Canada whose ancestral language has been revitalised report better [[quality of life]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kunnas|first=Niina|date=2003|title=Revitalization of minority languages as a way to promote well-being in the North|journal=International Journal of Circumpolar Health |volume=62|issue=4 |doi=10.3402/ijch.v62i4.17584 |pmid=14964767 |pages=410–422 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Globalization drives nations to adopt monoligual practices and pressure speakers of minority or marginalized languages to speak the majority language instead. Because globalization entails dominant cultural groups imposing their ways of social, economic and political organization on weaker cultures, [[Salikoko Mufwene]] considers it a product of colonization.<ref name="Mufwene"/>