Editing Face perception (section)

==Ethnicity==
{{main|Cross-race effect}}
[[File:Cross-race effect study samples.jpg|alt=Four faces, two caucasian (first two rows) and two Asian (last two rows) as well as their edited counterparts. The middle face of each row is the original face upon which the manipulations were made. The leftmost face has eyes or mouth 20% smaller than the original (the middle face), the face located second from the left has eyes or mouth 10% smaller than the original, the rightmost face has eyes or mouth 20% larger than the original, and the face located second from the right has eyes or mouth 10% larger than the original.|thumb|Sample of real and edited white and Asian faces used in study of the cross-race effect<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Zhe|last2=Quinn|first2=Paul C.|last3=Tanaka|first3=James W.|last4=Yu|first4=Xiaoyang|last5=Sun|first5=Yu-Hao P.|last6=Liu|first6=Jiangang|last7=Pascalis|first7=Olivier|last8=Ge|first8=Liezhong|last9=Lee|first9=Kang|date=2015|title=An other-race effect for configural and featural processing of faces: upper and lower face regions play different roles|journal=Frontiers in Psychology|language=English|volume=6|page=559|doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00559|issn=1664-1078|pmc=4424811|pmid=26005427|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

Differences in own- versus other-race face recognition and perceptual discrimination was first researched in 1914.<ref name=Feingold>{{cite journal|author=Feingold, C.A.|year=1914|title=The influence of environment on identification of persons and things|url=https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1279&context=jclc|journal=Journal of Criminal Law and Police Science|volume=5|issue=1|pages=39–51|doi=10.2307/1133283|jstor=1133283|access-date=5 February 2019|archive-date=19 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719212902/https://scholarlycommons.law.northwestern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1279&context=jclc|url-status=live|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Humans tend to perceive people of other races than their own to all look alike:{{blockquote|Other things being equal, individuals of a given race are distinguishable from each other in proportion to our familiarity, to our contact with the race as whole. Thus, to the uninitiated American all [[Asian people|Asiatics]] look alike, while to the Asiatics, all White men look alike.<ref name=Feingold/>}}

This phenomenon, known as the [[cross-race effect]], is also called the ''own-race effect'', ''other-race effect'', ''own race bias'', or ''interracial face-recognition deficit''.<ref name=Walker03/>

It is difficult to measure the true influence of the cross-race effect.

A 1990 study found that other-race effect is larger among [[White people|White]] subjects than among [[African Americans|African-American]] subjects, whereas a 1979 study found the opposite.<ref name="otherrace">{{cite journal|last1=Lindsay|first1=D. Stephen|last2=Jack|first2=Philip C. Jr. |last3=Christian|first3=Christian A.|date=13 February 1991|title=Other-race face perception|url=http://web.uvic.ca/~slindsay/publications/1991LindJackChristian.pdf|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=76|issue=4|access-date=30 September 2016|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.76.4.587|pmid=1917773|pages=587–9|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183033/http://web.uvic.ca/~slindsay/publications/1991LindJackChristian.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> D. Stephen Lindsay and colleagues note that results in these studies could be due to intrinsic difficulty in recognizing the faces presented, an actual difference in the size of cross-race effect between the two test groups, or some combination of these two factors.<ref name="otherrace" /> Shepherd reviewed studies that found better performance on African-American faces, White faces, and studies where no difference was found.<ref>Brigham & Karkowitz, 1978; Brigham & Williamson, 1979; cited in Shepherd, 1981</ref><ref>Chance, Goldstein, & McBride, 1975; Feinman & Entwistle, 1976; cited in Shepherd, 1981</ref><ref>Malpass & Kravitz, 1969; Cross, Cross, & Daly, 1971; Shepherd, Deregowski, & Ellis, 1974; all cited in Shepherd, 1981</ref>

Overall, Shepherd reported a reliable positive correlation between the size of the effect and the amount of interaction subjects had with members of the other race. This correlation reflects the fact that African-American subjects, who performed equally well on faces of both races in Shepherd's study, almost always responded with the highest possible self-rating of amount of interaction with white people, whereas white counterparts displayed a larger other-race effect and reported less other-race interaction. This difference in rating was statistically reliable.<ref name="otherrace" />

The cross-race effect seems to appear in humans at around six months of age.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=David J.|last2=Quinn|first2=Paul C.|last3=Slater|first3=Alan M.|last4=Lee|first4=Kang|last5=Ge|first5=Liezhong|last6=Pascalis|first6=Olivier|date=1 December 2007|title=The other-race effect develops during infancy: Evidence of perceptual narrowing|journal=Psychological Science|volume=18|issue=12|pages=1084–9|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02029.x|pmid=18031416|pmc=2566514 }}</ref>

=== Challenging the cross-race effect ===
Cross-race effects can be changed through interaction with people of other races.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sangrigoli|first1=S.|last2=Pallier|first2=C.|last3=Argenti|first3=A.-M.|last4=Ventureyra|first4=V.&nbsp;a.&nbsp;G.|last5=de&nbsp;Schonen|first5=S.|date=1 June 2005|title=Reversibility of the other-race effect in face recognition during childhood|journal=Psychological Science|volume=16|issue=6|pages=440–4|doi=10.1111/j.0956-7976.2005.01554.x|pmid=15943669|s2cid=5572690 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02336677/file/SangrigoliPallier_finaldraft.pdf }}</ref> Other-race experience is a major influence on the cross-race effect.<ref name=Walker03>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Pamela M|last2=Tanaka|first2=James W|date=1 September 2003|title=An Encoding Advantage for Own-Race versus Other-Race Faces|url=https://doi.org/10.1068/p5098|journal=Perception|language=en|volume=32|issue=9|pages=1117–25|doi=10.1068/p5098|pmid=14651324|s2cid=22723263|issn=0301-0066|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A series of studies revealed that participants with greater other-race experience were consistently more accurate at discriminating other-race faces than participants with less experience.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Walker|first1=Pamela M.|last2=Hewstone|first2=Miles|date=2006|title=A developmental investigation of other-race contact and the own-race face effect|url=https://bpspsychub.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1348/026151005X51239|journal=British Journal of Developmental Psychology|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=451–463|doi=10.1348/026151005X51239|issn=2044-835X|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name=Walker03 /> Many current models of the effect assume that holistic face processing mechanisms are more fully engaged when viewing own-race faces.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=de&nbsp;Gutis|first1=Joseph|last2=Mercado|first2=Rogelio J.|last3=Wilmer|first3=Jeremy|last4=Rosenblatt|first4=Andrew|date=10 April 2013|title=Individual differences in holistic processing predict the own-race advantage in recognition memory|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=8|issue=4|page=e58253|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0058253|pmid=23593119|pmc=3622684|bibcode=2013PLoSO...858253D |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The own-race effect appears related to increased ability to extract information about the spatial relationships between different facial features.<ref>Diamond & Carey, 1986; Rhodes ''et al.''., 1989</ref>

A deficit occurs when viewing people of another race because visual information specifying race takes up mental attention at the expense of individuating information.<ref name="Levin2000">{{cite journal|author=Levin, Daniel T.|title=Race as a visual feature: Using visual search and perceptual discrimination tasks to understand face categories and the cross-race recognition deficit|journal=J Exp Psychol Gen|volume=129|issue=4|pages=559–574|date=December 2000|pmid=11142869|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.129.4.559 }}<br />{{cite journal |vauthors=Senholzi KB, Ito TA |title=Structural face encoding: How task affects the N170's sensitivity to race |journal=Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci |volume=8 |issue=8 |pages=937–42 |date=December 2013 |pmid=22956666 |pmc=3831558 |doi=10.1093/scan/nss091 }}</ref> Further research using perceptual tasks could shed light on the specific cognitive processes involved in the other-race effect.<ref name="otherrace" /> The own-race effect likely extends beyond racial membership into [[in-group favoritism]]. Categorizing somebody by the university they attend yields similar results to the own-race effect.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bernstein|first1=Michael J.|last2=Young|first2=Steven G.|last3=Hugenberg|first3=Kurt|title=The Cross-Category Effect: Mere Social Categorization Is Sufficient to Elicit an Own-Group Bias in Face Recognition|journal=Psychological Science|date=August 2007|volume=18|issue=8|pages=706–712|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01964.x|pmid=17680942|s2cid=747276 }}</ref>

Similarly, men tend to recognize fewer female faces than women do, whereas there are no sex differences for male faces.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Rehnman, J.|author2=Herlitz, A.|date=April 2006|title=Higher face recognition ability in girls: Magnified by own-sex and own-ethnicity bias|journal=Memory|volume=14|issue=3|pages=289–296|doi=10.1080/09658210500233581|pmid=16574585|s2cid=46188393}}</ref>

If made aware of the own-race effect prior to the experiment, test subjects show significantly less, if any, of the own-race effect.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hugenberg|first1=Kurt|last2=Miller|first2=Jennifer|last3=Claypool|first3=Heather M.|date=1 March 2007|title=Categorization and individuation in the cross-race recognition deficit: Toward a solution to an insidious problem|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=43|issue=2|pages=334–340|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.010}}</ref>