Editing Modern architecture (section)

==Postwar modernism in the United States (1945–1985)==
{{main|International Style (architecture)}}
The [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]] of architecture had appeared in Europe, particularly in the [[Bauhaus]] movement, in the late 1920s. In 1932 it was recognized and given a name at an Exhibition at the [[Museum of Modern Art]] in New York City organized by architect [[Philip Johnson]] and architectural critic [[Henry-Russell Hitchcock]], Between 1937 and 1941, following the rise Hitler and the Nazis in Germany, most of the leaders of the German Bauhaus movement found a new home in the United States, and played an important part in the development of American modern architecture.

===Frank Lloyd Wright and the Guggenheim Museum===
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File:Lakeland FSC Pfeiffer Chapel01.jpg|The Pfeiffer Chapel at [[Florida Southern College]] by Frank Lloyd Wright (1941–1958)
File:Building, globe, and grounds of the S.C. Johnson and son headquarters building, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, Racine, Wisconsin LCCN2011634906.jpg|The tower of the [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]] and Research Center (1944–50)
File:Price Tower - Bartlesville.jpg|The [[Price Tower]] in [[Bartlesville]], Oklahoma (1956)
File:NYC - Guggenheim Museum.jpg|[[Solomon Guggenheim Museum]], by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] (1946–1959)
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[[Frank Lloyd Wright]] was eighty years old in 1947; he had been present at the beginning of American modernism, and though he refused to accept that he belonged to any movement, continued to play a leading role almost to its end. One of his most original late projects was the campus of [[Florida Southern College]] in [[Lakeland, Florida]], begun in 1941 and completed in 1943. He designed nine new buildings in a style that he described as "The [[Child of the Sun]]". He wrote that he wanted the campus to "grow out of the ground and into the light, a child of the sun".

He completed several notable projects in the 1940s, including the [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]] and the [[Price Tower]] in [[Bartlesville]], Oklahoma (1956). The building is unusual that it is supported by its central core of four elevator shafts; the rest of the building is cantilevered to this core, like the branches of a tree. Wright originally planned the structure for an apartment building in New York City. That project was cancelled because of the [[Great Depression]], and he adapted the design for an oil pipeline and equipment company in Oklahoma. He wrote that in New York City his building would have been lost in a forest of tall buildings, but that in Oklahoma it stood alone. The design is asymmetrical; each side is different.

In 1943 he was commissioned by the art collector [[Solomon R. Guggenheim]] to design a museum for his collection of modern art. His design was entirely original; a bowl-shaped building with a spiral ramp inside that led museum visitors on an upward tour of the art of the 20th century. Work began in 1946 but it was not completed until 1959, the year that he died.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=128}}

===Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer===
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File:Story Hall, Harvard University, Cambridge MA.jpg|Story Hall of the [[Harvard Law School]] by [[Walter Gropius]] and ([[The Architects Collaborative]])
File:Stillman Photo 2.jpeg|The [[Stillman House]] [[Litchfield, Connecticut]], by [[Marcel Breuer]] (1950) The swimming pool mural is by [[Alexander Calder]]
File:Walter Gropius photo MetLife Building fassade New York USA 2005-10-03.jpg|The PanAm building (Now [[MetLife Building]]) in New York, by [[Walter Gropius]] and [[The Architects Collaborative]] (1958–63)
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[[Walter Gropius]], the founder of the [[Bauhaus]], moved to England in 1934 and spent three years there before being invited to the United States by Walter Hudnut of the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]]; Gropius became the head of the architecture faculty. [[Marcel Breuer]], who had worked with him at the Bauhaus, joined him and opened an office in Cambridge. The fame of Gropius and Breuer attracted many students, who themselves became famous architects, including [[Ieoh Ming Pei]] and [[Philip Johnson]]. They did not receive an important commission until 1941, when they designed housing for workers in Kensington, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh., In 1945 Gropius and Breuer associated with a group of younger architects under the name TAC ([[The Architects Collaborative]]). Their notable works included the building of the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]], the U.S. Embassy in Athens (1956–57), and the headquarters of Pan American Airways in New York (1958–63).{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=120}}

===Ludwig Mies van der Rohe===
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File:VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg|[[Villa Tugendhat]] in [[Brno]], Czech Republic (1928–30)
File:Farnsworth House by Mies Van Der Rohe - exterior-8.jpg|The [[Farnsworth House]] in [[Plano, Illinois]] (1945–51)
File:S.R. Crown Hall.jpg|[[Crown Hall]] at the [[Illinois Institute of Technology]], Chicago (1956)
File:Seagrambuilding.jpg|The [[Seagram Building]], New York City, 1958, by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]]
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[[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] described his architecture with the famous saying, "Less is more". As the director of the school of architecture of what is now called the [[Illinois Institute of Technology]] from 1939 to 1956, Mies (as he was commonly known) made Chicago the leading city for American modernism in the postwar years. He constructed new buildings for the Institute in modernist style, two high-rise apartment buildings on Lakeshore Drive (1948–51), which became models for high-rises across the country. Other major works included [[Farnsworth House]] in [[Plano, Illinois]] (1945–1951), a simple horizontal glass box that had an enormous influence on American residential architecture. The Chicago Convention Center (1952–54) and [[Crown Hall]] at the Illinois Institute of Technology (1950–56), and The [[Seagram Building]] in New York City (1954–58) also set a new standard for purity and elegance. Based on granite pillars, the smooth glass and steel walls were given a touch of color by the use of bronze-toned I-beams in the structure. He returned to Germany in 1962–68 to build the new Nationalgallerie in Berlin. His students and followers included [[Philip Johnson]], and [[Eero Saarinen]], whose work was substantially influenced by his ideas.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=129}}

===Richard Neutra and Charles and Ray Eames===
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File:Eames House0.jpg|[[Eames House]] by [[Charles and Ray Eames]], [[Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles|Pacific Palisades]], (1949)
File:NeutraOfficeBldg.1.jpg|[[Neutra Office Building]] by [[Richard Neutra]] in Los Angeles (1950)
File:Constance Perkins House.jpg|The [[Constance Perkins House]] by [[Richard Neutra]], Los Angeles (1962)
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Influential residential architects in the new style in the United States included [[Richard Neutra]] and [[Charles and Ray Eames]]. The most celebrated work of the Eames was [[Eames House]] in [[Pacific Palisades, Los Angeles|Pacific Palisades]], California, (1949) Charles Eames in collaboration with [[Eero Saarinen]] It is composed of two structures, an architects residence and his studio, joined in the form of an L. The house, influenced by Japanese architecture, is made of translucent and transparent panels organized in simple volumes, often using natural materials, supported on a steel framework. The frame of the house was assembled in sixteen hours by five workmen. He brightened up his buildings with panels of pure colors.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=135}}

[[Richard Neutra]] continued to build influential houses in Los Angeles, using the theme of the simple box. Many of these houses erased the line distinction between indoor and outdoor spaces with walls of plate glass.<ref>[http://www.aiacc.org/cgi-bin/htmlos.cgi/00671.3.4558823583020346930] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721235921/http://www.aiacc.org/cgi-bin/htmlos.cgi/00671.3.4558823583020346930|date=21 July 2011}}</ref> Neutra's [[Constance Perkins House]] in [[Pasadena, California]] (1962) was re-examination of the modest single-family dwelling. It was built of inexpensive material–wood, plaster, and glass–and completed at a cost of just under $18,000. Neutra scaled the house to the physical dimensions of its owner, a small woman. It features a reflecting pool which meanders under of the glass walls of the house. One of Neutra's most unusual buildings was [[Shepherd's Grove]] in [[Garden Grove, California]], which featured an adjoining parking lot where worshippers could follow the service without leaving their cars.

===Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and Wallace K. Harrison===
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File:Manhattan House 65 jeh.JPG|[[Manhattan House]] by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] (1950–51)
File:Lever House by David Shankbone.jpg|[[Lever House]] by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] (1951–52)
File:Manufacturers Trust Company Building 510 Fifth Avenue.jpg|[[Manufacturers Trust Company Building]], by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]], New York City (1954)
File:Yale-beinecke-library.jpg|[[Beinecke Library]] at [[Yale University]] by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] (1963)
File:United Nations Headquarters.JPG|[[United Nations Headquarters]] in New York, by [[Wallace Harrison]] with [[Oscar Niemeyer]] and [[Le Corbusier]] (1952)
File:CFiorentini007.jpg|The [[Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)|Metropolitan Opera House]] at [[Lincoln Center]] in New York City by [[Wallace Harrison]] (1966)
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Many of the notable modern buildings in the postwar years were produced by two architectural mega-agencies, which brought together large teams of designers for very complex projects. The firm of [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] was founded in Chicago in 1936 by [[Louis Skidmore]] and [[Nathaniel Owings]], and joined in 1939 by engineer [[John O. Merrill|John Merrill]], It soon went under the name of SOM. Its first big project was [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee]], the gigantic government installation that produced plutonium for the first nuclear weapons. In 1964 the firm had eighteen "partner-owners", 54 "associate participants, "and 750 architects, technicians, designers, decorators, and landscape architects. Their style was largely inspired by the work of [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], and their buildings soon had a large place in the New York skyline, including the [[Manhattan House]] (1950–51), [[Lever House]] (1951–52) and the [[Manufacturers Trust Company Building]] (1954). Later buildings by the firm include [[Beinecke Library]] at [[Yale University]] (1963), the [[Willis Tower]], formerly Sears Tower in Chicago (1973) and [[One World Trade Center]] in New York City (2013), which replaced the building destroyed in the terrorist attack of 11 September 2001.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|pages=132–33}}

[[Wallace Harrison]] played a major part in the modern architectural history of New York; as the architectural advisor of the [[Rockefeller Family]], he helped design [[Rockefeller Center]], the major Art Deco architectural project of the 1930s. He was supervising architect for the 1939 New York World's Fair, and, with his partner [[Max Abramowitz]], was the builder and chief architect of the [[headquarters of the United Nations]]; Harrison headed a committee of international architects, which included [[Oscar Niemeyer]] (who produced the original plan approved by the committee) and [[Le Corbusier]]. Other landmark New York buildings designed by Harrison and his firm included [[Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)|Metropolitan Opera House]], the master plan for [[Lincoln Center]], and [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]].{{Sfn|Bony|2012|pages=132}}

===Philip Johnson===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Glasshouse-philip-johnson.jpg|The [[Glass House]] by [[Philip Johnson]] in [[New Canaan, Connecticut]] (1953)
File:IDS reflecting Wells Fargo.jpg|The [[IDS Center]] in Minneapolis, Minnesota, by Philip Johnson (1969–72)
File:Crys-ext.jpg|The [[Crystal Cathedral]] by Philip Johnson (1977–80)
File:Williamstower.jpg|The [[Williams Tower]] in [[Houston]], Texas, by Philip Johnson (1981–1983)
File:Pittsburgh-pennsylvania-ppg-place-2007.jpg|[[PPG Place]] in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania, by Philip Johnson (1981–84)
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[[Philip Johnson]] (1906–2005) was one of the youngest and last major figures in American modern architecture. He trained at Harvard with Walter Gropius, then was director of the department of architecture and modern design at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] from 1946 to 1954. In 1947, he published a book about [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], and in 1953 designed his own residence, the [[Glass House]] in [[New Canaan, Connecticut]] in a style modeled after Mies's [[Farnsworth House]]. Beginning in 1955 he began to go in his own direction, moving gradually toward expressionism with designs that increasingly departed from the orthodoxies of modern architecture. His final and decisive break with modern architecture was the AT&T Building (later known as the Sony Tower), and now the [[550 Madison Avenue]] in New York City, (1979) an essentially modernist skyscraper completely altered by the addition of broken [[pediment]] with a circular opening. This building is generally considered to mark the beginning of [[Postmodern architecture]] in the United States.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|pages=132}}

===Eero Saarinen===
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File:St Louis night expblend cropped.jpg|The [[Gateway Arch]] in [[St. Louis|Saint Louis]], Missouri (1948–1965)
File:Warren - General Motors Technical Center (50826111923).jpg|Main building of the [[General Motors Technical Center]] (1949–55)
File:Ingalls Rink Highsmith.jpg|The [[Ingalls Rink]] in [[New Haven]], Connecticut (1953–58)
File:Jfkairport.jpg|The TWA Terminal at JFK Airport in New York, by [[Eero Saarinen]] (1956–62)
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[[Eero Saarinen]] (1910–1961) was the son of [[Eliel Saarinen]], the most famous Finnish architect of the Art Nouveau period, who emigrated to the United States in 1923, when Eero was thirteen. He studied art and sculpture at the academy where his father taught, and then at the [[Académie de la Grande Chaumière]] Academy in Paris before studying architecture at Yale University. His architectural designs were more like enormous pieces of sculpture than traditional modern buildings; he broke away from the elegant boxes inspired by Mies van der Rohe and used instead sweeping curves and parabolas, like the wings of birds. In 1948 he conceived the idea of a monument in St. Louis, Missouri in the form of a parabolic arch 192 meters high, made of stainless steel (1948). He then designed the [[General Motors Technical Center]] in Warren, Michigan (1949–55), a glass modernist box in the style of Mies van der Rohe, followed by the IBM Research Center in Yorktown, Virginia (1957–61). His next works were a major departure in style; he produced a particularly striking sculptural design for the [[Ingalls Rink]] in [[New Haven]], Connecticut (1956–59, an ice skiing rink with a parabolic roof suspended from cables, which served as a preliminary model for next and most famous work, the [[TWA Terminal]] at JFK airport in New York (1956–1962). His declared intention was to design a building that was distinctive and memorable, and also one that would capture the particular excitement of passengers before a journey. The structure is separated into four white concrete parabolic vaults, which together resemble a bird on the ground perched for flight. Each of the four curving roof vaults has two sides attached to columns in a Y form just outside the structure. One of the angles of each shell is lightly raised, and the other is attached to the center of the structure. The roof is connected with the ground by curtain walls of glass. All of the details inside the building, including the benches, counters, escalators, and clocks, were designed in the same style.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|pages=171–72}}

===Louis Kahn===
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File:First Unitarian Church of Rochester NY North Side at West end 1227-8.jpg|The [[First Unitarian Church of Rochester (building)|First Unitarian Church of Rochester]] by Louis Kahn (1962)
File:Salk Institute 2.jpg|The [[Salk Institute]] by [[Louis Kahn]] (1962–63)
File:WTP2 Mike Reali 01d.jpg|[[Richards Medical Research Laboratories]] by Louis Kahn (1957–61)
File:Kimbell Art Museum Dusk Highsmith.jpg|The [[Kimball Art Museum]] in [[Fort Worth]], Texas (1966–72)
File:Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (Roehl).jpg|The [[Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban|National Parliament Building]] in [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]] (1962–74)
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[[Louis Kahn]] (1901–74) was another American architect who moved away from the Mies van der Rohe model of the glass box, and other dogmas of the prevailing international style. He borrowed from a wide variety of styles, and idioms, including neoclassicism. He was a professor of architecture at Yale University from 1947 to 1957, where his students included [[Eero Saarinen]]. From 1957 until his death he was a professor of architecture at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. His work and ideas influenced [[Philip Johnson]], [[Minoru Yamasaki]], and [[Edward Durell Stone]] as they moved toward a more neoclassical style. Unlike Mies, he did not try to make his buildings look light; he constructed mainly with concrete and brick, and made his buildings look monumental and solid. He drew from a wide variety of different sources; the towers of [[Richards Medical Research Laboratories]] were inspired by the architecture of the Renaissance towns he had seen in Italy as a resident architect at the [[American Academy in Rome]] in 1950. Notable buildings by Kahn in the United States include the [[First Unitarian Church of Rochester (building)|First Unitarian Church of Rochester]], New York (1962); and the [[Kimball Art Museum]] in [[Fort Worth]], Texas (1966–72). Following the example of [[Le Corbusier]] and his design of the government buildings in [[Chandigarh]], the capital city of the [[Haryana]] & [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] State of India, Kahn designed the [[Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban]] (National Assembly Building) in [[Dhaka]], [[Bangladesh]] (1962–74), when that country won independence from Pakistan. It was Kahn's last work.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=149}}

===I. M. Pei===
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File:Green Building, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|[[Green Building (MIT)|Green Building]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] by [[I. M. Pei]] (1962–64)
File:National Center for Atmospheric Research - Boulder, Colorado.jpg|The [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]] in [[Boulder, Colorado]] by I. M. Pei (1963–67)
File:Johnson Museum of Art, Cornell Univ Ithaca NY USA.jpg|[[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]] at [[Cornell University]] in [[Ithaca, New York]] by I. M. Pei (1973)
File:National Gallery East Wing by Matthew Bisanz.JPG|East Wing of the [[National Gallery of Art]] in Washington, D.C., by I M. Pei (1978)
File:Louvre Museum Wikimedia Commons.jpg|Pyramid of the [[Louvre Museum]] in Paris by I. M. Pei (1983–89)
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[[I. M. Pei]] (1917–2019) was a major figure in late modernism and the debut of [[Post-modern architecture]]. He was born in China and educated in the United States, studying architecture at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. While the architecture school there still trained in the [[Beaux-Arts architecture]] style, Pei discovered the writings of [[Le Corbusier]], and a two-day visit by Le Corbusier to the campus in 1935 had a major impact on Pei's ideas of architecture. In the late 1930s, he moved to the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]], where he studied with [[Walter Gropius]] and [[Marcel Breuer]] and became deeply involved in Modernism.{{Sfn|Boehm|2000|page=36}} After the war he worked on large projects for the New York real estate developer [[William Zeckendorf]], before breaking away and starting his own firm. One of the first buildings his own firm designed was the [[Green Building (MIT)|Green Building]] at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. While the clean modernist façade was admired, the building developed an unexpected problem; it created a wind tunnel effect, and in strong winds the doors could not be opened. Pei was forced to construct a tunnel so visitors could enter the building during high winds.

Between 1963 and 1967 Pei designed the [[Mesa Laboratory]] for the [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]] outside [[Boulder, Colorado]], in an open area at the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The project differed from Pei's earlier urban work; it would rest in an open area in the foothills of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. His design was a striking departure from traditional modernism; it looked as if it were carved out of the side of the mountain.{{Sfn|Boehm|2000|page=59}}

In the late modernist area, art museums bypassed skyscrapers as the most prestigious architectural projects; they offered greater possibilities for innovation in form and more visibility. Pei established himself with his design for the [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]] at [[Cornell University]] in [[Ithaca, New York]] (1973), which was praised for its imaginative use of a small space, and its respect for the landscape and other buildings around it. This led to the commission for one of the most important museum projects of the period, the new East Wing of the [[National Gallery of Art]] in Washington, completed in 1978, and to another of Pei's most famous projects, the pyramid at the entrance of [[Louvre Museum]] in Paris (1983–89). Pei chose the pyramid as the form that best harmonized with the Renaissance and neoclassical forms of the historic Louvre, as well as for its associations with Napoleon and the [[Battle of the Pyramids]]. Each face of the pyramid is supported by 128 beams of stainless steel, supporting 675 panels of glass, each {{convert|2.9|by|1.9|m|sp=us}}.{{Sfn|Bony|2012|page=210}}

===Fazlur Rahman Khan===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px" "=""> 
File:Hancock_tower_2006.jpg|[[John Hancock Center]] in Chicago by [[Fazlur Rahman Khan]] was the first building to use X-bracing to create the trussed-tube design. 
File:2004-07-14_2600x1500_chicago_lake_skyline.jpg|[[Willis Tower]] in Chicago was the first building to use the bundled-tube design. 
</gallery> 
In 1955, employed by the architectural firm [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]] (SOM), he began working in Chicago. He was made a partner in 1966. He worked the rest of his life side by side with Architect Bruce Graham.<ref>{{cite news |title=Obama Mentions Fazlur Rahman Khan |url=http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=4199 |date=19 June 2009 |journal=The Muslim Observer |access-date=11 October 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130619140854/http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=4199 |archive-date=19 June 2013 }}</ref> Khan introduced design methods and concepts for efficient use of material in building architecture. His first building to employ the tube structure was the [[Chestnut De-Witt apartment building]].<ref name=Baker>{{cite conference |url=http://ikb.edu.pl/jacek.wdowicki/BWW/1-tematy/budynki/0-dyplomy/Jin%20Mao%20Tower%20%28Jinbao%20Building%29,%20Szanghai,%20China%20%28Chiny%29,%2088%20kond/Bak01.pdf |title=Structural Innovation |last=Baker |first=William F. |date=2001 |publisher=Spon Press |book-title=Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat: Cities in the Third Millennium |pages=481–493 |location=New York |isbn=0-415-23241-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202160854/http://ikb.edu.pl/jacek.wdowicki/BWW/1-tematy/budynki/0-dyplomy/Jin%20Mao%20Tower%20%28Jinbao%20Building%29%2C%20Szanghai%2C%20China%20%28Chiny%29%2C%2088%20kond/Bak01.pdf |archive-date=2 February 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> During the 1960s and 1970s, he became noted for his designs for Chicago's 100-story [[John Hancock Center]], which was the first building to use the trussed-tube design, and 110-story Sears Tower, since renamed [[Willis Tower]], the tallest building in the world from 1973 until 1998, which was the first building to use the framed-tube design.

He believed that engineers needed a broader perspective on life, saying, "The technical man must not be lost in his own technology; he must be able to appreciate life, and life is art, drama, music, and most importantly, people." Khan's personal papers, most of which were in his office at the time of his death, are held by the [[Ryerson & Burnham Libraries]] at the [[Art Institute of Chicago]]. The Fazlur Khan Collection includes manuscripts, sketches, audio cassette tapes, slides and other materials regarding his work.

Khan's seminal work of developing tall building structural systems are still used today as the starting point when considering design options for tall buildings. Tube structures have since been used in many skyscrapers, including the [[construction of the World Trade Center]], [[Aon Center (Chicago)|Aon Centre]], [[Petronas Towers]], [[Jin Mao Building]], [[Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong|Bank of China Tower]] and most other buildings in excess of 40 stories constructed since the 1960s. The strong influence of tube structure design is also evident in the world's current tallest skyscraper, the [[Burj Khalifa]] in [[Dubai]]. According to Stephen Bayley of ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'':
{{blockquote|Khan invented a new way of building tall. ... So Fazlur Khan created the unconventional skyscraper. Reversing the logic of the steel frame, he decided that the building's external envelope could – given enough trussing, framing and bracing – be the structure itself. This made buildings even lighter. The "bundled tube" meant buildings no longer need be boxlike in appearance: they could become sculpture. Khan's amazing insight – he was name-checked by Obama in his Cairo University speech last year – changed both the economics and the morphology of supertall buildings. And it made Burj Khalifa possible: proportionately, Burj employs perhaps half the steel that conservatively supports the Empire State Building. ... Burj Khalifa is the ultimate expression of his audacious, lightweight design philosophy.<ref>{{cite news |title=Burj Dubai: The new pinnacle of vanity |first=Stephen |last=Bayley |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=5 January 2010 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/dubai/6934603/Burj-Dubai-The-new-pinnacle-of-vanity.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/dubai/6934603/Burj-Dubai-The-new-pinnacle-of-vanity.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=2010-02-26}}{{cbignore}}</ref>}}

===Minoru Yamasaki===
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File: Skyline_Twin_Towers_Sander_Lamme.jpg|The Twin Towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)]] in [[Lower Manhattan]] by [[Minoru Yamasaki]] (1913–1986)
File: Pruitt-igoeUSGS02.jpg|The [[Pruitt–Igoe|Wendell O. Pruitt Homes and William Igoe Apartments]] Housing Project, in [[St. Louis]] (1955–1976)
File: CenturyPlazaTowers.jpg|The [[Century Plaza Towers]] in Los Angeles, California (1975) 
File:OneWoodwardAvenue.JPG|[[One Woodward Avenue]] in Detroit, Michigan (1962)
</gallery>
In the United States, Minoru Yamasaki found major independent success in implementing unique engineering solutions to then-complicated problems, including the space that elevator shafts took up on each floor, and dealing with his personal fear of heights. During this period, he created a number of office buildings which led to his innovative design of the {{convert|1360|ft|m|abbr=on}} towers of the World Trade Center in 1964, which began construction 21 March 1966.<ref>Remarks by the Hon. [[Richard J. Hughes]], World Trade Center Press Conference, New York Hilton Hotel, 18 January 1964.</ref> The first of the towers was finished in 1970.<ref name=HistoryPANYNJ>{{cite web| title=History of the Twin Towers| publisher=Port Authority of New York and New Jersey| access-date=12 December 2014| url=http://www.panynj.gov/wtcprogress/history-twin-towers.html}}</ref> Many of his buildings feature superficial details inspired by the pointed arches of [[Gothic architecture]], and make use of extremely narrow vertical windows. This narrow-windowed style arose from his own personal [[acrophobia|fear of heights]].<ref name=GlanzLipton>{{Cite book| title=City in the sky: the rise and fall of the World Trade Center |first1=Glanz| last1=James| first2=Eric| last2=Lipton| publisher=Macmillan| year=2003| isbn=978-0-8050-7428-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yE1Pyui4GpkC| page=109}}</ref> One particular design challenge of the World Trade Center's design related to the efficacy of the elevator system, which was unique in the world. Yamasaki integrated the fastest elevators at the time, running at 1,700 feet per minute. Instead of placing a large traditional elevator shaft in the core of each tower, Yamasaki created the Twin Towers' "[[Sky lobby|Skylobby]]" system. The Skylobby design created three separate, connected elevator systems which would serve different segments of the building, depending on which floor was chosen, saving approximately 70% of the space used for a traditional shaft. The space saved was then used for office space.<ref name=jaffee>Remarks by Lee K. Jaffee, World Trade Center Press Conference, New York Hilton Hotel, 18 January 1964.</ref> In addition to these accomplishments, he had also designed the Pruitt-Igoe Housing Project, the largest ever housing project built in the United States, which was fully torn down in 1976 due to bad market conditions and the decrepit state of the buildings themselves. Separately, he had also designed the Century Plaza Towers and One Woodward Avenue, among 63 other projects he had developed during his career.