Editing Spanish language (section)

== Dialectal variation ==
[[File:Variedades principales del español.png|thumb|upright=1.35|A world map attempting to identify the main dialects of Spanish]]
{{Main|Spanish dialects and varieties}}
While being mutually intelligible, there are important variations ([[Phonology|phonological]], [[Grammar|grammatical]], and [[Lexicon|lexical]]) in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas.

The national variety with the most speakers is [[Mexican Spanish]]. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112&nbsp;million of the total of more than 500&nbsp;million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the [[vowel reduction|reduction]] or loss of [[unstressed vowel]]s, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.<ref>Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) [https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&dq=Mexican+vowels&pg=PA154 ''Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2''], pp. 154–155, {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150915115219/https://books.google.com/books?id=89KX2RC6Gx0C&pg=PA154&dq=Mexican+vowels&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Mexican%20vowels&f=false |date=15 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Lope Blanch, Juan M. |year=1972 |chapter=En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano |pages=53–73 |title=Estudios sobre el español de México |publisher=Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México |language=es |url=http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205011128/http://www.filos.unam.mx/LICENCIATURA/Pagina_FyF_2004/introduccion/Lope_Vocales_caedizas.pdf}}</ref>

In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. The speech from the educated classes of Madrid is the standard variety for use on radio and television in Spain and it is indicated by many as the one that has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Penny |2000|p=199}}: "whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard."</ref> Central (European) Spanish speech patterns have been noted to be in the process of merging with more innovative southern varieties (including Eastern Andalusian and Murcian), as an emerging interdialectal levelled ''koine'' buffered between the Madrid's traditional national standard and the Seville speech trends.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Juan Manuel|last1=Hernández Campoy|first2=Juan Andrés |last2=Villena Ponsoda |title=Standardness and nonstandardness in Spain: dialect attrition and revitalization of regional dialects of Spanish |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language|year=2009 |doi=10.1515/IJSL.2009.021 |issue=196–197 |pages=185–186 |s2cid=145000590 |url=https://www.academia.edu/30322624 |access-date=24 January 2022|url-status=live|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124040200/https://www.academia.edu/30322624/Standardness_and_nonstandardness_in_Spain_dialect_attrition_and_revitalization_of_regional_dialects_of_Spanish}}</ref>

=== Phonology ===
{{See also|Phonetic change "f → h" in Spanish}}
The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the phoneme {{IPAslink|θ}}, (2) the [[debuccalization]] of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}}, (3) the sound of the spelled {{angle bracket|s}}, (4) and the phoneme {{IPAslink|ʎ}}.
* The phoneme {{IPA|/θ/}} (spelled {{lang|es|c}} before {{lang|es|e}} or {{lang|es|i}} and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} elsewhere), a [[voiceless dental fricative]] as in English '''''th'''ing'', is maintained by a majority of Spain's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. In other areas (some parts of southern Spain, the [[Canary Islands]], and the Americas), {{IPA|/θ/}} does not exist and {{IPA|/s/}} occurs instead. The maintenance of phonemic contrast is called {{lang|es|[[distinción]]}} in Spanish, while the merger is generally called {{lang|es|[[seseo]]}} (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as {{IPA|[s]}}) or, occasionally, {{lang|es|[[ceceo]]}} (referring to its interdental realization, {{IPA|[θ]}}, in some parts of southern Spain). In most of Hispanic America, the spelled {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}, and spelled {{angle bracket|z}} is always pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]].
* The debuccalization (pronunciation as {{IPA|[h]}}, or loss) of syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is associated with the southern half of Spain and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and {{lang|es|aspiración}} in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the syllable-final {{IPA|/s/}} is pronounced as [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] or as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] in the same fashion as in the next paragraph.
* The sound that corresponds to the letter {{angle bracket|s}} is pronounced in northern and central Spain as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Retracted alveolar|voiceless "apico-alveolar" sibilant]] {{IPA|[s̺]}} (also described acoustically as "[[Grave and acute|grave]]" and articulatorily as "retracted"), with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of {{lcons|retroflex}} fricatives. In [[Andalusia]], [[Canary Islands]] and most of Hispanic America (except in the [[Colombian Spanish#Paisa dialect|Paisa region]] of Colombia) it is pronounced as a [[Voiceless alveolar sibilant#Dentalized laminal alveolar|voiceless dental sibilant]] {{IPA|[s]}}, much like the most frequent pronunciation of the /s/ of English. 
* The phoneme {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, spelled {{angle bracket|ll}}, a [[Palatal lateral approximant|palatal lateral]] consonant that can be approximated by the sound of the {{angle bracket|lli}} of English ''million'', tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spain and in the [[Andean Spanish|highland areas of South America]], as well as in [[Paraguayan Spanish|Paraguay]] and [[Bolivian Spanish#Dialects|lowland Bolivia]]. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish speakers, it is merged with {{IPA|/ʝ/}} ("curly-tail ''j''"), a non-lateral, usually voiced, usually fricative, palatal consonant, sometimes compared to English {{IPA|/j/}} (''yod'') as in '''''y'''acht'' and spelled {{angle bracket|y}} in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world languages, the small difference of the spelled {{angle bracket|ll}} and the spelled {{angle bracket|y}} is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called {{lang|es|[[yeísmo]]}} in Spanish. In [[Rioplatense Spanish]], the merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a postalveolar fricative, either voiced {{IPA|[ʒ]}} (as in English ''measure'' or the French {{angle bracket|j}}) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region ({{lang|es|zheísmo}}), or voiceless {{IPA|[ʃ]}} (as in the French {{angle bracket|ch}} or Portuguese {{angle bracket|x}}) in and around Buenos Aires and Montevideo ({{lang|es|sheísmo}}).<ref>Charles B. Chang, [http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004213655/http://www.lingref.com/cpp/wss/4/paper1755.pdf |date=4 October 2013}}. Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54–63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.</ref>

=== Morphology ===
The main [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns, especially those of the second [[Grammatical person|person]] and, to a lesser extent, the [[object pronoun]]s of the third [[Grammatical person|person]].

==== Voseo ====
{{Main|Voseo}}
[[File:Voseo-extension-real.PNG|thumb|An examination of the dominance and stress of the {{lang|es|voseo}} feature in Hispanic America. Data generated as illustrated by the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]. The darker the area, the stronger its dominance.]]

Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the [[T–V distinction|distinction]] between a formal and a familiar [[register (sociolinguistics)|register]] in the [[Grammatical person|second-person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]] and thus have two different [[pronoun]]s meaning "you": {{lang|es|usted}} in the formal and either {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}} varying from one dialect to another. The use of {{lang|es|vos}} and its verb forms is called {{lang|es|[[voseo]]}}. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used, with {{lang|es|usted}}, {{lang|es|tú}}, and {{lang|es|vos}} denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.<ref name="rae.es site">{{cite web |date=2023-06-11 |orig-date=October 2005 |url=http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |title=Diccionario panhispánico de dudas|trans-title=Pan-Hispanic Dictionary of Doubts |publisher=Real Academia Española y Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española [Royal Spanish Academy and Association of Academies of the Spanish Language] |language=es |access-date=2023-11-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305022017/http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/ |archive-date=5 March 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In {{lang|es|voseo}}, {{lang|es|vos}} is the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] form ({{lang|es|vos decís}}, "you say") and the form for the object of a [[Preposition and postposition|preposition]] ({{lang|es|voy con vos}}, "I am going with you"), while the direct and indirect [[Object (grammar)|object]] forms, and the [[Possessive adjective|possessives]], are the same as those associated with {{lang|es|tú}}: {{lang|es|Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan}} ("You know your friends respect you").

The verb forms of the general {{lang|es|voseo}} are the same as those used with {{lang|es|tú}} except in the present [[grammatical tense|tense]] ([[indicative]] and [[imperative mood|imperative]]) verbs. The forms for {{lang|es|vos}} generally can be derived from those of {{lang|es|vosotros}} (the traditional second-person familiar ''plural'') by deleting the [[semivowel|glide]] {{IPA|[i̯]}}, or {{IPA|/d/}}, where it appears in the ending: {{lang|es|vosotros pensá'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos pensás}}; {{lang|es|vosotros volvé'''i'''s}} > {{lang|es|vos volvés}}, {{lang|es|pensa'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|pensá!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}), {{lang|es|volve'''d'''!}} ({{lang|es|vosotros}}) > {{lang|es|volvé!}} ({{lang|es|vos}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/voseo |title=Voseo según DPD |language=es |access-date=27 January 2022 |archive-date=4 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104222442/http://www.rae.es/dpd/?key=voseo |url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+ General voseo <small>([[Rioplatense Spanish|River Plate Spanish]])</small>
! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative
|-
! Present
! Simple past
! Imperfect past
! Future
! Conditional
! Present
! Past
|-
| {{lang|es|pensás}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pienses'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}}
| {{lang|es|pensá}}
|-
| {{lang|es|volvés}}
| {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''vuelvas'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|volvé}}
|-
| {{lang|es|dormís}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''duermas'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|dormí}}
|-
| colspan=8|<small>The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''tú'''-conjugation''.</small>
|}

In Central American {{lang|es|voseo}}, the {{lang|es|tú}} and {{lang|es|vos}} forms differ in the present subjunctive as well:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Central American voseo
! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Indicative
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Subjunctive
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Imperative
|-
! Present
! Simple past
! Imperfect past
! Future
! Conditional
! Present
! Past
|-
| {{lang|es|pensás}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensabas'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensarás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensarías'''}}
| {{lang|es|pensés}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensaras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}}
| {{lang|es|pensá}}
|-
| {{lang|es|volvés}}
| {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volvías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volverás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''volverías'''}}
| {{lang|es|volvás}}
| {{lang|es|'''volvieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|volvé}}
|-
| {{lang|es|dormís}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormías'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormirás'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormirías'''}}
| {{lang|es|durmás}}
| {{lang|es|'''durmieras'''}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|dormí}}
|-
| colspan=8|<small>The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''tú'''-conjugation''.</small>
|}
In Chilean {{lang|es|voseo}}, almost all {{lang|es|vos}} forms are distinct from the corresponding standard {{lang|es|tú}}-forms.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Chilean voseo
! colspan="5" style="text-align:center;" |Indicative
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Subjunctive
! rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" |Imperative
|-
! Present
! Simple past
! Imperfect past
! Future<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baquero Velásquez |first1=Julia M. |last2=Westphal Montt |first2=Germán F. |year=2014 |title=Un análisis sincrónico del voseo verbal chileno y rioplatense |journal=Forma y Función |language=es |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=11–40 |doi=10.15446/fyf.v27n2.47558 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
! Conditional
! Present
! Past
|-
| {{lang|es|pensái(s)}}
| {{lang|es|'''pensaste'''}}
| {{lang|es|pensabais}}
| {{lang|es|pensarí(s)}}<br>{{lang|es|pensaráis}}
| {{lang|es|pensaríai(s)}}
| {{lang|es|pensí(s)}}
| {{lang|es|pensarai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''pensases'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''piensa'''}}
|-
| {{lang|es|volví(s)}}
| {{lang|es|'''volviste'''}}
| {{lang|es|volvíai(s)}}
| {{lang|es|volverí(s)}}<br>{{lang|es|volveráis}}
| {{lang|es|volveríai(s)}}
| {{lang|es|volvái(s)}}
| {{lang|es|volvierai(s)}}<br />{{lang|es|'''volvieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''vuelve'''}}
|-
| {{lang|es|dormís}}
| {{lang|es|'''dormiste'''}}
| {{lang|es|dormíais}}
| {{lang|es|dormirís}}<br>{{lang|es|dormiráis}}
| {{lang|es|dormiríais}}
| {{lang|es|durmáis}}
| {{lang|es|durmierais}}<br />{{lang|es|'''durmieses'''}}
| {{lang|es|'''duerme'''}}
|-
| colspan="8" |<small>The forms in '''''bold''''' coincide with standard '''''tú'''-conjugation''.</small>
|}

The use of the pronoun {{lang|es|vos}} with the verb forms of {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|vos piensas}}) is called "pronominal {{lang|es|voseo}}". Conversely, the use of the verb forms of {{lang|es|vos}} with the pronoun {{lang|es|tú}} ({{lang|es|tú pensás}} or {{lang|es|tú pensái}}) is called "verbal {{lang|es|voseo}}". In Chile, for example, verbal ''voseo'' is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun ''vos'', which is usually reserved for highly informal situations.

===== Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas =====
Although {{lang|es|vos}} is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, with wide differences in social consideration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Andrew|date=10 April 2018|title=A Brief Guide to Regional Variation of the Forms of Address (Tú, Vos, Usted) in Spanish|url=https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|access-date=2 November 2020|website=Learn Spanish with Andrew|language=en-US|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109032144/https://howlearnspanish.com/forms-of-address-guide/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=November 2020}} Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of {{lang|es|tuteo}} (the use of {{lang|es|tú}}) in the following areas: almost all of [[Mexico]], the [[West Indies]], [[Panama]], most of [[Colombia]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] and coastal [[Ecuador]].

{{lang|es|Tuteo}} as a cultured form alternates with {{lang|es|voseo}} as a popular or rural form in [[Bolivia]], in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]]), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that {{lang|es|voseo}} can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.<ref>Katia Salamanca de Abreu, [http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf review of Humberto López Morales, ''Estudios sobre el español de Cuba''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121221132209/http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/thesaurus/pdf/28/TH_28_001_138_0.pdf |date=21 December 2012}} (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in ''Thesaurus'', 28 (1973), 138–146.</ref>

{{lang|es|Tuteo}} exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar {{lang|es|voseo}} in [[Chile]], in the Venezuelan state of [[Zulia]], on the Caribbean coast of [[Colombia]], in the [[Azuero Peninsula]] in Panama, in the Mexican state of [[Chiapas]], and in parts of Guatemala.

Areas of generalized {{lang|es|voseo}} include [[Argentina]], [[Nicaragua]], eastern [[Bolivia]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]] and the Colombian departments of [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], [[Caldas Department|Caldas]], [[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]], [[Quindio]] and [[Valle del Cauca]].<ref name="rae.es site" />

==== Ustedes ====

{{lang|es|Ustedes}} functions as formal and informal second-person plural in all of Hispanic America, the [[Canary Islands]], and parts of [[Andalusia]]. It agrees with verbs in the 3rd person plural. Most of Spain maintains the [[T-V distinction|formal/familiar distinction]] with {{lang|es|ustedes}} and {{lang|es|vosotros}} respectively. The use of {{lang|es|ustedes}} with the second person plural is sometimes heard in Andalusia, but it is non-standard.

==== Usted ====
{{lang|es|Usted}} is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, but it is used jointly with the third-person singular voice of the verb. It is used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a ''familiar'' context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of {{lang|es|tú}} or {{lang|es|vos}}. This usage is sometimes called {{lang|es|[[:es:Ustedeo|ustedeo]]}} in Spanish.

In Central America, especially in Honduras, {{lang|es|usted}} is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. {{lang|es|Usted}} is also used that way between parents and children in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.

==== Third-person object pronouns ====
Most speakers use (and the {{lang|es|[[Real Academia Española]]}} prefers) the pronouns {{lang|es|lo}} and {{lang|es|la}} for [[Object (grammar)|direct objects]] (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of [[animacy]], meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and {{lang|es|le}} for [[Object (grammar)|indirect objects]] (regardless of [[Grammatical gender|gender]] or [[animacy]], meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). The usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the [[Accusative case|accusative]] and [[Dative case|dative]] pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish.

A number of dialects (more common in Spain than in the Americas) use additional rules for the pronouns, such as animacy, or [[count noun]] vs. [[mass noun]], rather than just direct vs. indirect object. The ways of using the pronouns in such varieties are called "{{lang|es|[[leísmo]]}}", "{{lang|es|[[loísmo]]}}", or "{{lang|es|[[laísmo]]}}", according to which respective pronoun, {{lang|es|le}}, {{lang|es|lo}}, or {{lang|es|la}}, covers more than just the etymological usage ({{lang|es|le}} as a direct object, or {{lang|es|lo}} or {{lang|es|la}} as an indirect object).

=== Vocabulary ===
Some words can be significantly different in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish {{lang|es|mantequilla}}, {{lang|es|aguacate}} and {{lang|es|albaricoque}} (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to {{lang|es|manteca}} (word used for [[lard]] in [[Peninsular Spanish]]), {{lang|es|palta}}, and {{lang|es|damasco}}, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except {{lang|es|manteca}}), Paraguay, Peru (except {{lang|es|manteca}} and {{lang|es|damasco}}), and Uruguay. In the healthcare context, an assessment of the Spanish translation of the [[Quality of well-being scale|QWB-SA]] identified some regional vocabulary choices and US-specific concepts, which cannot be successfully implemented in Spain without adaptation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Congost-Maestre |first=Nereida |url=https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |title=Sociocultural issues in adapting Spanish health survey translation: The case of the QWB-SA (Chapter 10) in The Essential Role of Language in Survey Research |date=2020-04-30 |publisher=RTI Press |isbn=978-1-934831-24-3 |editor-last=Sha |editor-first=Mandy |pages=203–220 |doi=10.3768/rtipress.bk.0023.2004 |doi-access=free |access-date=13 December 2023 |archive-date=11 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211122733/https://www.rti.org/rti-press-publication/language-survey-research |url-status=live}}</ref>