Editing Grammatical number (section)

====Nondual====

The nondual{{efn|Variously spelled as either nondual<ref>See:
*{{cite journal |last=Evans |first=Nicholas |author-link=Nicholas Evans (linguist) |date=2014 |title=Positional Verbs in Nen |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/14019/1/Evans%20Positional%20Verbs%20in%20Nen%202014.pdf |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=53 |issue=2 |pages=225–255 [228n†, 229, 229n10, 231–237, 233n17, 235n20] |doi=10.1353/ol.2014.0019 |hdl=1885/14019 |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724191507/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/14019/1/Evans%20Positional%20Verbs%20in%20Nen%202014.pdf |archive-date=2023-07-24 }}
*{{cite journal |last=Harbour |first=Daniel |date=2020 |title=Frankenduals: Their Typology, Structure, and Significance |url=https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/04_96.1Harbour.pdf |journal=Language |volume=96 |issue=1 |pages=60–93 [60n1] |doi=10.1353/lan.2020.0002 |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311174251/https://www.linguisticsociety.org/sites/default/files/04_96.1Harbour.pdf |archive-date=2024-03-11 }}
*{{cite book |last=Siegel |first=Jeff |year=2023 |title=A Grammar of Nama: A Papuan Language of Southern New Guinea |series=Pacific Linguistics, vol. 668 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |pages=122–125, 127–128, 133–134, 137, 139, 141–146, 148, 150–152, 155, 217, 238, 264, 295, 302–304, 302n51, 313–314, 316, 318 |isbn=978-3-11-107701-7 }}
</ref> or non-dual.<ref>See:
*{{cite book |author-last1=McDonald |author-first1=M. |author-last2=Wurm |author-first2=S. A. |author-link2=Stephen Wurm |year=1979 |title=Basic Materials in Waŋkumara (Gaḷali): Grammar, Sentences and Vocabulary |url=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-B65.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics, Series B - No. 65 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=18–19 |isbn=0-85883-202-X |access-date=2024-04-11 |archive-date=2020-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110025746/http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-B65.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}
*{{cite book |last=Siegl |first=Florian |year= |title=Materials on Forest Enets, an Indigenous Language of Northern Siberia |series=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia / Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne, 267 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Société Finno-Ougrienne |page=280 |isbn=978-952-5667-46-2 }}
*{{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Logan |editor-last1=Berez |editor-first1=Andrea L. |editor-link1=Andrea L. Berez-Kroeker |editor-last2=Mulder |editor-first2=Jean |editor-link2=Jean Mulder |editor-last3=Rosenblum |editor-first3=Daisy |year=2010 |title=Fieldwork and Linguistic Analysis in Indigenous Languages of the Americas |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |series=Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 2 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawai‘i Press |pages=57–89 [68] |chapter=Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tanoan: Comparative-Historical Research and Respecting Speakers' Rights in Fieldwork |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315192418/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |archive-date=2024-03-15 |isbn=978-0-8248-3530-9 }}</ref>}} number means any number except two. For example, in [[Wilson River language|Wangkumara]]:<ref name="McDonald1979">{{cite book |author-last1=McDonald |author-first1=M. |author-last2=Wurm |author-first2=S. A. |author-link2=Stephen Wurm |year=1979 |title=Basic Materials in Waŋkumara (Gaḷali): Grammar, Sentences and Vocabulary |url=http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-B65.pdf |series=Pacific Linguistics, Series B - No. 65 |location=Canberra |publisher=Australian National University |pages=16–19, 22, 24, 28, 67 |isbn=0-85883-202-X |access-date=2024-04-11 |archive-date=2020-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110025746/http://sealang.net/archives/pl/pdf/PL-B65.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

*{{lang|xwk|d̯it̯i}} - "dog(s)" (nondual, one or three or more than three)
*{{lang|xwk|d̯it̯i'''bula'''}} - "two dogs" (dual)

Wangkumara does not normally mark number directly on nouns. Instead, it distinguishes singular, dual, and plural using adnominal pronouns, plural-indicating adjectives like 'many', or marking on other adjectives. The exception is that nouns take the dual enclitic when referring to two. Thus for nouns alone, the only distinction is dual and nondual.<ref name="McDonald1979"/>

A more complex system can be found in the [[Tanoan languages]] of [[Kiowa language|Kiowa]] and [[Jemez language|Jemez]]. These languages have what is called an inverse number system. Although the languages distinguish between singular, dual, and plural, any given noun only has a single possible number marker. What number is implicit in an unmarked noun depends on its class. In Kiowa, by default, Class I nouns are singular-dual, Class II nouns are plural (two or more), Class III nouns are dual, and Class IV nouns are mass nouns with no number. The inverse number marker changes the noun to whatever number(s) the unmarked noun isn't, such as changing Class III nouns from dual to nondual.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Logan |editor-last1=Berez |editor-first1=Andrea L. |editor-link1=Andrea L. Berez-Kroeker |editor-last2=Mulder |editor-first2=Jean |editor-link2=Jean Mulder |editor-last3=Rosenblum |editor-first3=Daisy |year=2010 |title=Fieldwork and Linguistic Analysis in Indigenous Languages of the Americas |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |series=Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 2 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawai‘i Press |pages=57–89 [60] |chapter=Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tanoan: Comparative-Historical Research and Respecting Speakers' Rights in Fieldwork |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315192418/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |archive-date=2024-03-15 |isbn=978-0-8248-3530-9 }}</ref> In Jemez, Class III nouns are the opposite: they are inherently nondual, and get marked for dual.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sutton |first=Logan |editor-last1=Berez |editor-first1=Andrea L. |editor-link1=Andrea L. Berez-Kroeker |editor-last2=Mulder |editor-first2=Jean |editor-link2=Jean Mulder |editor-last3=Rosenblum |editor-first3=Daisy |year=2010 |title=Fieldwork and Linguistic Analysis in Indigenous Languages of the Americas |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |series=Language Documentation & Conservation Special Publication No. 2 |location=Honolulu |publisher=University of Hawai‘i Press |pages=57–89 [67–68] |chapter=Noun Class and Number in Kiowa-Tanoan: Comparative-Historical Research and Respecting Speakers' Rights in Fieldwork |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240315192418/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/88057c69-25c4-499d-9a23-ab017f32d6b6/content |archive-date=2024-03-15 |isbn=978-0-8248-3530-9 }}</ref>

<div style=display:inline-grid>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Some Kiowa nouns<ref>{{cite book |last=Harbour |first=Daniel |editor-last1=Matushansky |editor-first1=Ora |editor-last2=Marantz |editor-first2=Alec |editor-link2=Alec Marantz |year=2013 |title=Distributed Morphology Today: Morphemes for Morris Halle |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=MIT Press |chapter="Not Plus" Isn't "Not There": Bivalence in Person, Number, and Gender |page=135–150 [142] |isbn=978-0-262-01967-5 }}</ref>
|-
! Class
! Noun
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! I
! bug
| colspan=2 | {{lang|kio|pól}}
| {{lang|kio|pól'''dau'''}}
|-
! II
! stick
| {{lang|kio|áa'''dau'''}}
| colspan=2 | {{lang|kio|áa}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | III
! rowspan=2 | tomato
| style="border-style: solid none solid solid;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|kio|k’âun'''dau'''}}
| {{lang|kio|k’âun}}
| style="border-style: solid solid solid none;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|kio|k’âun'''dau'''}}
|-
| style="border-style: none none none none;" |
|-
! IV
! rock
| colspan=3 | {{lang|kio|ts’ów}}
|}
</div>
<div style=display:inline-grid>
&nbsp;
&nbsp;
&nbsp;
</div>
<div style=display:inline-grid>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Some Jemez nouns<ref>{{cite book |last=Mithun |first=Marianne |author-link=Marianne Mithun |year=2006 |orig-year=1999 |title=The Languages of Native North America |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=81 |isbn=0-521-23228-7 }}</ref>
|-
! Class
! Noun
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! I
! crow
| {{lang|tow|kyáá}}
| colspan=2 |{{lang|tow|kyáá'''sh'''}}
|-
! II
! bridge
| colspan=2 | {{lang|tow|wáákwe'''sh'''}}
| {{lang|tow|wáákwe}}
|-
! rowspan=2 | III
! rowspan=2 | flower
| style="border-style: solid none solid solid;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|tow|pá}}
| {{lang|kio|pá'''sh'''}}
| style="border-style: solid solid solid none;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|tow|pá}}
|-
| style="border-style: none none none none;" |
|-
! IV
! snow
| colspan=3 | {{lang|tow|zú}}
|}
</div>

The nondual versus dual distinction may also be found in verbs. [[Timbisha language|Timbisha]] has verbs with several different possible number distinctions, including nondual ones.<ref name="McLaughlin2018">{{cite journal |last=McLaughlin |first=John E. |date=2018 |title=Expanding to the Edges: Central Numic Dual Number |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1830&context=english_facpub |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=359–381 [370–371] |doi=10.1086/697587 |access-date=2024-03-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502044421/https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1830&context=english_facpub |archive-date=2022-05-02 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> A more minor example is [[Enets language|Forest Enets]], which has the nondual only in its intransitive third person imperative verbs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siegl |first=Florian |year= |title=Materials on Forest Enets, an Indigenous Language of Northern Siberia |series=Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia / Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne, 267 |location=Helsinki |publisher=Société Finno-Ougrienne |page=280 |isbn=978-952-5667-46-2 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Some Timbisha verbs
|-
! Verb
! Singular
! Dual
! Plural
|-
! "to emerge"
| {{lang|par|to’e}}
| {{lang|par|toto’e}}
| {{lang|par|kɨa}}
|-
! "to fall"
| {{lang|par|pahe}}
| colspan=2 | {{lang|par|pokoa}}
|-
! "to kill"
| colspan=2 | {{lang|par|pakka}}
| {{lang|par|wasɨ}}
|-
! rowspan=2 |"to go"
| style="border-style: solid none solid solid;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|par|mi’a}}
| {{lang|par|mimi’a}}
| style="border-style: solid solid solid none;" rowspan=2 | {{lang|par|mi’a}}
|-
| style="border-style: none none none none;" |
|}

The nondual violates a proposed universal of conflated systems, namely that they will always encompass every value except plural.<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |author-link=Greville G Corbett |year=2004 |orig-year=2000 |title=Number |series=Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=123–124 |isbn=0-511-01591-7 }}</ref> Regardless, the nondual has still been referred to as a conflation of number values.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siegel |first=Jeff |year=2023 |title=A Grammar of Nama: A Papuan Language of Southern New Guinea |series=Pacific Linguistics, vol. 668 |location=Berlin |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |page=302 |isbn=978-3-11-107701-7 }}</ref>