Editing Infrastructure (section)

== Sustainable infrastructure ==
{{Main|Sustainable infrastructure}}
Although it is readily apparent that much effort is needed to repair the economic damage inflicted by the Coronavirus epidemic, an immediate return to business as usual could be environmentally harmful, as shown by the 2007-08 financial crisis in the United States. While the ensuing economic slowdown reduced global greenhouse gas emissions in 2009, emissions reached a record high in 2010, partially due to governments' implemented economic stimulus measures with minimal consideration of the environmental consequences.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=How a post-pandemic stimulus can both create jobs and help the climate|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/how-a-post-pandemic-stimulus-can-both-create-jobs-and-help-the-climate|access-date=2020-11-05|website=McKinsey}}</ref> The concern is whether this same pattern will repeat itself. The post-COVID-19 period could determine whether the world meets or misses the emissions goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement and limits global warming to 1.5 degrees C to 2 degrees C.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement|title=The Paris Agreement – UNFCCC|access-date=2022-05-23|website=unfccc.int}}</ref>

As a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, a host of factors could jeopardize a low-carbon recovery plan: this includes reduced attention on the global political stage (2020 UN Climate Summit has been postponed to 2021), the relaxing of environmental regulations in pursuit of economic growth, decreased oil prices preventing low-carbon technologies from being competitive, and finally, stimulus programs that take away funds that could have been used to further the process of [[low-carbon economy|decarbonization]].<ref name=":6" /> Research suggests that a recovery plan based on lower-carbon emissions could not only make significant emissions reductions needed to battle climate change, but also create more economic growth and jobs than a high-carbon recovery plan would.<ref name=":6" /> A study published in the Oxford Review of Economic Policy, more than 200 economists and economic officials reported that "green" economic-recovery initiatives performed at least as well as less "green" initiatives.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hepburn |first1=Cameron |last2=O’Callaghan |first2=Brian |last3=Stern |first3=Nicholas |last4=Stiglitz |first4=Joseph |last5=Zenghelis |first5=Dimitri |title=Will COVID-19 fiscal recovery packages accelerate or retard progress on climate change? |journal=Oxford Review of Economic Policy |date=28 September 2020 |volume=36 |issue=Supplement_1 |pages=S359–S381 |doi=10.1093/oxrep/graa015 |pmc=7239121 |s2cid=218942009 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There have also been calls for an independent body could provide a comparable assessment of countries' fiscal policies, promoting transparency and accountability at the international level.<ref name=":11" />

In addition, in an econometric study published in the Economic Modelling journal, an analysis on government energy technology spending showed that spending on the [[renewable energy]] sector created five more jobs per million dollars invested than spending on [[fossil fuels]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garrett-Peltier |first1=Heidi |title=Green versus brown: Comparing the employment impacts of energy efficiency, renewable energy, and fossil fuels using an input-output model |journal=Economic Modelling |date=February 2017 |volume=61 |pages=439–447 |doi=10.1016/j.econmod.2016.11.012 }}</ref> Since sustainable infrastructure is more beneficial in both an economic and environmental context, it represents the future of infrastructure. Especially with increasing pressure from climate change and diminishing natural resources, infrastructure not only needs to maintain economic development and job development, and a high quality of life for residents, but also protect the environment and its natural resources.<ref name=":1" />

=== Sustainable energy ===
[[Sustainable energy]] infrastructure includes types of renewable energy power plants as well as the means of exchange from the plant to the homes and businesses that use that energy. Renewable energy includes well researched and widely implemented methods such as wind, solar, and hydraulic power, as well as newer and less commonly used types of power creation such as fusion energy. Sustainable energy infrastructure must maintain a strong supply relative to demand, and must also maintain sufficiently low prices for consumers so as not to decrease demand.<ref name="Cervero" /> Any type of renewable energy infrastructure that fails to meet these consumption and price requirements will ultimately be forced out of the market by prevailing non renewable energy sources.

=== Sustainable water ===
Sustainable water infrastructure is focused on a community's sufficient access to clean, safe drinking water.<ref name="Cervero" /> Water is a public good along with electricity, which means that sustainable water catchment and distribution systems must remain affordable to all members of a population.<ref name="Cervero" /> "Sustainable Water" may refer to a nation or community's ability to be self-sustainable, with enough water to meet multiple needs including agriculture, industry, sanitation, and drinking water. It can also refer to the holistic and effective management of water resources.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aquatechtrade.com/news/water-treatment/sustainable-water-essential-guide|title=Sustainable water: our essential guide to sustainable water resource management solutions & strategies|website=aquatechtrade.com}}</ref> Increasingly, policy makers and regulators are incorporating [[Nature-based solutions]] (NBS or NbS) into attempts to achieve sustainable water infrastructure.

=== Sustainable waste management ===
Sustainable waste management systems aim to minimize the amount of waste products produced by individuals and corporations.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |doi=10.1061/9780784481202.037 |chapter=Unreliable Sustainable Infrastructure: Three Transformations to Guide Cities towards Becoming Healthy 'Smart Cities' |title=International Conference on Sustainable Infrastructure 2017 |date=2017 |last1=Fisher |first1=S. |last2=Reiner |first2=M. B. |last3=Sperling |first3=J. |pages=388–397 |isbn=978-0-7844-8120-2 }}</ref> Commercial waste management plans have transitioned from simple waste removal plans into comprehensive plans focused on reducing the total amount of waste produced before removal.<ref name=":7" /> Sustainable waste management is beneficial environmentally, and can also cut costs for businesses that reduce their amount of disposed goods.<ref name=":7" />

=== Sustainable transportation ===
{{Main|Sustainable transport}}
Sustainable transportation includes a shift away from private, greenhouse gas emitting cars in favor of adopting methods of transportation that are either [[carbon neutrality|carbon neutral]] or reduce carbon emissions such as bikes or electric bus systems.<ref name=":8">{{cite journal |last1=Hartman |first1=Meghan |last2=Knell |first2=Mark Bone |last3=Witherspoon |first3=Jay |title=Masdar City's Integrated Approach to Sustainability |journal=Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation |date=2010 |volume=2010 |issue=2 |pages=104–117 |doi=10.2175/193864710798285516 }}</ref> Additionally, cities must invest in the appropriate built environments for these ecologically preferable modes of transportation.<ref name=":8" /> Cities will need to invest in public transportation networks, as well as bike path networks among other sustainable solutions that incentivize citizens to use these alternate transit options. Reducing the urban dependency on cars is a fundamental goal of developing sustainable transportation, and this cannot be accomplished without a coordinated focus on both creating the methods of transportation themselves and providing them with networks that are equally or more efficient than existing car networks such as aging highway systems.<ref name=":8" />

=== Sustainable materials ===
Another solution to transition into a more sustainable infrastructure is using more sustainable materials. A material is sustainable if the needed amount can be produced without depleting non-renewable resources.<ref name="Rutgers What Are Sustainable Materials?">{{Cite web |title=What Are Sustainable Materials? |website=Center for Sustainable Materials |publisher=Rutgers |url=http://sustain.rutgers.edu/what_are_sustainable_materials |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604213127/http://sustain.rutgers.edu:80/what_are_sustainable_materials |archive-date=4 June 2012 }}</ref> It also should have low environmental impacts by not disrupting the established steady-state equilibrium of it.<ref name="Rutgers What Are Sustainable Materials?"/> The materials should also be resilient, renewable, reusable, and recyclable.<ref>{{Cite web|title=11 Characteristics of Sustainable Materials|url=https://simplicable.com/new/sustainable-materials|access-date=2020-11-06|website=Simplicable|date=17 October 2018 }}</ref>

Today, concrete is one of the most common materials used in infrastructure. There is twice as much concrete used in construction than all other building materials combined.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gagg |first1=Colin R. |title=Cement and concrete as an engineering material: An historic appraisal and case study analysis |journal=Engineering Failure Analysis |date=May 2014 |volume=40 |pages=114–140 |doi=10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.02.004 }}</ref> It is the backbone of industrialization, as it is used in bridges, piers, pipelines, pavements, and buildings.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-817784-6.00008-4 |chapter=Graphene-reinforced cement composites for smart infrastructure systems |title=The Rise of Smart Cities |date=2022 |last1=Schulte |first1=Justine |last2=Jiang |first2=Zhangfan |last3=Sevim |first3=Ozer |last4=Ozbulut |first4=Osman E. |pages=79–114 |isbn=978-0-12-817784-6 }}</ref> However, while they do serve as a connection between cities, transportation for people and goods, and protection for land against flooding and erosion, they only last for 50 to 100 years.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102181-1.00030-7 |chapter=Foreword |title=Eco-Efficient Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Infrastructures |date=2018 |last1=Schlangen |first1=Erik |pages=xvii |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-102181-1 }}</ref> Many were built within the last 50 years, which means many infrastructures need substantial maintenance to continue functioning.

However, concrete is not sustainable. The production of concrete contributes up to 8% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name="iwbcc.com">{{Cite web|date=2019-04-28|title=Why Building With Concrete is not Sustainable|url=https://www.iwbcc.com/why-building-with-concrete-is-not-sustainable/|access-date=2020-11-06|website=IWBC|language=en-US}}</ref> A tenth of the world's industrial water usage is from producing concrete.<ref name="iwbcc.com"/> Even transporting the raw materials to concrete production sites adds to airborne pollution.<ref name="iwbcc.com"/> Furthermore, the production sites and the infrastructures themselves all strip away agricultural land that could have been fertile soil or habitats vital to the ecosystem.