Editing Primate (section)

===Intelligence and cognition===
{{Main|Primate cognition}}
Primates have advanced cognitive abilities: some make tools and use them to acquire food and for social displays;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boesch |first1=C. |last2=Boesch |first2=H. |title=Tool Use and Tool Making in Wild Chimpanzees |journal=[[Folia Primatologica]] |year=1990 |volume=54 |pages=86–99 |doi=10.1159/000156428 |pmid=2157651 |issue=1–2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Westergaard |year=1998 |title=Why some capuchin monkeys (''Cebus apella'') use probing tools (and others do not) |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-psychology_1998-06_112_2/page/207 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207 |pmid=9642788 |first1=G. C. |last2=Lundquist|first2=A. L.|display-authors=2 |last3=Haynie |first3=Michael Katherine |last4=Kuhn |first4=Heather E. |last5=Suomi |first5=Stephen J.}}</ref> some can perform tasks requiring cooperation, influence and rank;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=de Waal |first1=F. B. M. |last2=Davis |first2=J. M. |year=2003 |title=Capuchin cognitive ecology: cooperation based on projected returns |journal=Neuropsychologia |volume=41 |pages=221–228 |doi=10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5 |pmid=12459220 |issue=2|s2cid=8190458 }}</ref> they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paar |first1=L. A. |last2=Winslow |first2=J. T. |last3=Hopkins |first3=W. D. |last4=de Waal |first4=F. B. M. |year=2000 |title=Recognizing facial cues: Individual discrimination by chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes'') and rhesus monkeys (''Macaca mulatta'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-psychology_2000-03_114_1/page/47 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=114 |issue=1 |pages=47–60 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47 |pmid=10739311 |pmc=2018744}}</ref><ref name="Byrne and Corp">{{cite journal |last=Byrne |first=Richard |author2=Corp, Nadia |title=Neocortex size predicts deception rate in primates |journal= Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences|year=2004 |volume=271 |issue=1549 |pages=1693–1699 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2780|pmid=15306289 |pmc=1691785}}</ref> they can recognise [[Kinship|kin]] and [[conspecific]]s;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paar |first1=L. A. |last2=de Waal |first2=F. B. M. |year=1999 |title=Visual kin recognition in chimpanzees |journal=Nature |volume=399 |pages=647–648 |doi=10.1038/21345 |pmid=10385114 |issue=6737|bibcode = 1999Natur.399..647P|s2cid=4424086 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |year=1997 |title=Discrimination of macaques by macaques: The case of sulawesi species |journal=Primates |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=233–245 |last1=Fujita |first1=K. |last2=Watanabe |first2=K. |last3=Widarto |first3=T. H. |last4=Suryobroto |first4=B. |doi=10.1007/BF02381612|s2cid=21042762 }}</ref> and they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax and concepts of number and numerical sequence.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Call |first=J. |year=2001 |title=Object permanence in orangutans (''Pongo pygmaeus''), chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes''), and children (''Homo sapiens'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-psychology_2001-06_115_2/page/159 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=159–171 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159 |pmid=11459163}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Itakura |first1=S. |last2=Tanaka |first2=M. |date=June 1998 |title=Use of experimenter-given cues during object-choice tasks by chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes''), an orangutan (''Pongo pygmaeus''), and human infants (''Homo sapiens'') |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-comparative-psychology_1998-06_112_2/page/119 |journal=Journal of Comparative Psychology |volume=112 |issue=2 |pages=119–126 |doi=10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.119 |pmid=9642782}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gouteux |first1=S. |last2=Thinus-Blanc |first2=C. |last3=Vauclair |first3=J. |year=2001 |title=Rhesus monkeys use geometric and nongeometric information during a reorientation task |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=505–519 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505 |pmid=11561924 |url=http://cogprints.org/3590/1/Gouteux_et_al_JEPGEN_01.pdf}}</ref> Research in primate cognition explores problem solving, memory, social interaction, a [[Theory of mind#Non-human|theory of mind]], and numerical, spatial, and abstract concepts.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Tomasello, M. |author2=Call, J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Primate Cognition |publisher=Oxford University Press US |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-510624-4}}</ref> Comparative studies show a trend towards higher intelligence going from prosimians to New World monkeys to Old World monkeys, and significantly higher average cognitive abilities in the great apes.<ref name="Deaner">{{cite journal | last1 = Deaner | first1 = R. O. | last2 = van Schaik | first2 = C. P. | last3 = Johnson | first3 = V. E. | year = 2006 | title = Do some taxa have better domain-general cognition than others? A metaanalysis of nonhuman primate studies | journal = [[Evolutionary Psychology (journal)|Evolutionary Psychology]] | volume = 4 | pages = 149–196 | doi = 10.1177/147470490600400114| s2cid = 16702785 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Reader">{{Cite journal | last1 = Reader | first1 = S. M. | last2 = Hager | first2 = Y. | last3 = Laland | first3 = K. N. | title = The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence | journal = [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] | volume = 366 | issue = 1567 | pages = 1017–1027 | date = 2011 | url = http://lalandlab.st-andrews.ac.uk/pdf/Publication163.pdf | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2010.0342 | pmid = 21357224 | access-date = 2011-07-04 | url-status=dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111003152030/http://lalandlab.st-andrews.ac.uk/pdf/Publication163.pdf | archive-date = 2011-10-03 | pmc = 3049098}}</ref> However, there is a great deal of variation in each group (e.g., among New World monkeys, both [[spider monkey|spider]]<ref name = "Deaner"/> and [[capuchin monkey]]s<ref name = "Reader"/> have scored highly by some measures), as well as in the results of different studies.<ref name = "Deaner"/><ref name = "Reader"/>

====Tool use and manufacture====
{{Main|Tool use by animals}}
[[File:Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv|thumb|right|[[Chimpanzee]]s using twigs to dip for ants]]
[[File:Macaca fascicularis aurea stone tools - journal.pone.0072872.g002.png|thumb|[[Crab-eating macaque]]s with [[stone tool]]s]]

In 1960, [[Jane Goodall]] observed a [[chimpanzee]] poking pieces of grass into a [[termite]] mound and then raising the grass to his mouth. After he left, Goodall approached the mound and repeated the behaviour because she was unsure what the chimpanzee was doing. She found that the termites bit onto the grass with their jaws. The chimpanzee had been using the grass as a tool to "fish" or "dip" for termites.<ref name="The Jane Goodall Institute1">{{cite web|url=https://www.janegoodall.org.uk/chimpanzees/chimpanzee-central/15-chimpanzees/chimpanzee-central/19-toolmaking|title=Toolmaking|publisher=The Jane Goodall Institute|access-date=2013-08-01}}</ref> There are more limited reports of the closely related [[bonobo]] using tools in the wild; it has been claimed they rarely use tools in the wild although they use tools as readily as chimpanzees when in captivity.<ref name="ApeTag">{{cite web |url=http://www.clemetzoo.com/apetag/Bonobos.html |title=Bonobos |publisher=ApeTag |year=2010 |access-date=2013-08-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102050710/https://www.clemetzoo.com/apetag/Bonobos.html |archive-date=2013-11-02 }}</ref> It has been reported that females, both chimpanzee and bonobo, use tools more avidly than males.<ref>
{{cite journal|last1=Gruber |first1=T. |last2=Clay |first2=Z. |last3=Zuberbühler |first3=K.|year=2010|title= A comparison of bonobo and chimpanzee tool use: evidence for a female bias in the ''Pan'' lineage|journal= Animal Behaviour|volume= 80|issue=6|pages= 1023–1033|url=http://www.emory.edu/LIVING_LINKS/publications/articles/Gruber_etal_2010.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.09.005|s2cid=14923158 }}</ref> [[Orangutan]]s in [[Borneo]] scoop catfish out of small ponds. Over two years, anthropologist Anne Russon observed orangutans learning to jab sticks at catfish to scare them out of the ponds and in to their waiting hands.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/04/orangutan-tools-fishing/ |title=Orangutans use simple tools to catch fish |author=Bower, B. |magazine=[[Wired (website)|Wired]] |date=18 April 2011|access-date=2013-08-05}}</ref> There are few reports of [[gorilla]]s using tools in the wild. An adult female [[western lowland gorilla]] used a branch as a walking stick apparently to test water depth and to aid her in crossing a pool of water. Another adult female used a detached trunk from a small shrub as a stabilizer during food gathering, and another used a log as a bridge.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Breuer |first1=T. |last2=Ndoundou-Hockemba |first2=M. |last3=Fishlock |first3=V.|year=2005|title= First observation of tool use in wild gorillas|journal= PLOS Biology |volume=3|issue=11|pages=e380 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030380|pmid=16187795|pmc=1236726 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The first direct observation of a non-ape primate using a tool in a wild environment occurred in 1988. Primatologist Sue Boinski watched an adult male white-faced capuchin beat a [[Bothrops asper|fer-de-lance]] snake to death with a dead branch.<ref name="Boinski1988">{{cite journal | title = Use of a club by a wild white-faced capuchin (''Cebus capucinus'') to attack a venomous snake (''Bothrops asper'')| year = 1988| last1 = Boinski| first1 = S.| journal = American Journal of Primatology| volume = 14| issue = 2| pages = 177–179| pmid = 31973450| s2cid = 84653622 |doi = 10.1002/ajp.1350140208}}</ref> The black-striped capuchin was the first non-ape primate for which routine tool use was documented in the wild; individuals were observed [[Primate archaeology|cracking nuts]] by placing them on a stone anvil and hitting them with another large stone.<ref name="Fragaszy">{{cite journal|last1=Fragaszy |first1=D. |last2=Izar |first2=P. |last3=Visalberghi |first3=E. |last4=Ottoni |first4=E.B. |last5=de Oliveira |first5=M.G.|year=2004|title= Wild capuchin monkeys (''Cebus libidinosus'') use anvils and stone pounding tools|journal= American Journal of Primatology|volume=64|issue=4|pages= 359–366|doi= 10.1002/ajp.20085|pmid=15580579|s2cid=16222308 }}</ref> In Thailand and Myanmar, [[crab-eating macaque]]s use stone tools to open nuts, oysters and other bivalves, and various types of sea snails.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gumert|first1=M.D.|last2=Kluck|first2=M.|last3=Malaivijitnond|first3=S.|title=The physical characteristics and usage patterns of stone axe and pounding hammers used by long-tailed macaques in the Andaman Sea region of Thailand|journal=American Journal of Primatology|year=2009|volume=71|issue=7|pages=594–608|doi=10.1002/ajp.20694|pmid=19405083|s2cid=22384150}}</ref> Chacma baboons use stones as weapons; stoning by these baboons is done from the rocky walls of the canyon where they sleep and retreat to when they are threatened. Stones are lifted with one hand and dropped over the side whereupon they tumble down the side of the cliff or fall directly to the canyon floor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hamilton |first1=W.J. |last2=Buskirk |first2=R.E. |last3=Buskirk |first3=W.H.|year=1975|title= Defensive stoning by baboons|journal= Nature|volume= 256|pages= 488–489| doi=10.1038/256488a0|issue=5517|bibcode=1975Natur.256..488H|s2cid=4149862 }}</ref>

Although they have not been observed to use tools in the wild, lemurs in controlled settings have been shown to be capable of understanding the functional properties of the objects they had been trained to use as tools, performing as well as tool-using haplorhines.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Fichtel | first1 = C. | last2 = Kappeler | first2 = P. M. | chapter = Chapter 19: Human universals and primate symplesiomorphies: Establishing the lemur baseline | editor1-last = Kappeler | editor1-first = P. M. | editor2-last = Silk | editor2-first = J. B. | title = Mind the Gap: Tracing the Origins of Human Universals | publisher = Springer | year = 2010 | isbn = 978-3-642-02724-6 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MFzxVH_OxjsC&pg=PA395}}</ref>

Soon after her initial discovery of tool use, Goodall observed other chimpanzees picking up leafy twigs, stripping off the leaves and using the stems to fish for insects. This change of a leafy twig into a tool was a major discovery. Prior to this, scientists thought that only humans manufactured and used tools, and that this ability was what separated humans from other animals.<ref name="The Jane Goodall Institute1" /> Chimpanzees have also been observed making "sponges" out of leaves and moss that suck up water.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Sugiyama, Y. | year=1995 | title=Drinking tools of wild chimpanzees at Bossou | journal=American Journal of Primatology | volume=37 | issue=1 | pages=263–269 | doi=10.1002/ajp.1350370308| pmid=31936951| s2cid=86473603 }}</ref> Sumatran orangutans have been observed making and using tools. They will break off a tree branch that is about 30&nbsp;cm long, snap off the twigs, fray one end and then use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites.<ref name="OrangutanIslands">{{cite web|url=http://orangutanislands.com/sumatra-orangutans.htm |title=Sumatran orangutans |publisher=OrangutanIslands.com |access-date=2013-08-02 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126074458/https://orangutanislands.com/sumatra-orangutans.htm |archive-date=2013-11-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=van Schaik |first1=C. |last2=Fox |first2=E. |last3=Sitompul |first3=A.|year=1996|title= Manufacture and use of tools in wild Sumatran orangutans|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_naturwissenschaften_1996-04_83_4/page/186 |journal= Naturwissenschaften|volume= 83|issue=4|pages= 186–188|doi=10.1007/BF01143062|pmid=8643126 |bibcode=1996NW.....83..186V|s2cid=27180148 }}</ref> In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at [[Chester Zoo]] (UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.<ref name="Gill2011">{{cite web | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/14227783 | title = Mandrill monkey makes 'pedicuring' tool | first = Victoria | last = Gill | publisher = BBC | date = 22 July 2011 | access-date = 2013-08-11}}</ref> Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools.<ref name="Vancatova">{{cite web|url=http://www.rozhlas.cz/therevealed/comments/_zprava/488947|author=Vancatova, M.|title=Gorillas and Tools – Part I|year=2008|access-date=2013-08-04}}</ref>