Editing Consumer behaviour (section)

== Other topics in consumer behaviour ==
[[File:Ferrari California1.jpg|thumb|The purchase of an up-market sports car carries both financial risk and social risk, because it is an expensive purchase and it makes a highly visible statement about the driver.]]
In addition to understanding the purchasing decision, marketers are interested in a number of different aspects of consumer behaviour that occur before, during, and after making a purchase choice. Areas of particular interest include risk perception and risk reduction activities, brand switching, channel switching, brand loyalty, customer citizenship behaviours, and post purchase behavioural intentions and behaviours including brand advocacy, referrals, word of mouth activity etc.

=== Risk perception and risk reduction activities ===
The consumer's [[risk perception|perceptions of risk]] are a major consideration in the pre-purchase stage of the purchasing decision. Perceived risk is defined as "the consumer's perceptions of the uncertainty and adverse consequences of engaging in an activity".<ref>Dowling, Grahame R. and Richard Staelin (1994), "A Model of Perceived Risk and Intended Risk-handling Activity", ''Journal of Consumer Research'', 21 (June), pp 119-34.</ref> Risk consists of two dimensions: ''consequences'' which refer to the [[degree of importance]] or the severity of an outcome and ''uncertainty'' which is the consumer's subjective assessment of the likelihood of occurrence.<ref>Mitchell, V.‐W. and Boustani, P., "A Preliminary Investigation into Pre‐ and Post‐Purchase Risk Perception and Reduction", ''European Journal of Marketing'', Vol. 28 No 1, 1994, pp.56 - 71</ref> For example, many tourists are fearful of air travel because, although the probability of being involved in an airline accident is very low, the consequences are potentially dire.

The marketing literature identifies many different types of risk, of which five are the most frequently cited:<ref>Ross, I., "Perceived Risk and Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review", in ''Advances in Consumer Research,'' Volume 2, Mary Jane Schlinger, (ed) MI, Association for Consumer Research, 1975, pp 1-20 <Online: http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/5741/volumes/v02/NA-02></ref>
[[File:Givenchy store at EPCOT.jpg|thumb|left|Facilitating trial of a product may help to alleviate risk perceptions.]]
* '''Financial Risk''': the potential financial loss in the event of a poor decision
* '''Performance Risk''' (also known as ''functional risk''): the idea that a product or service will not perform as intended
* '''Physical Risk''': the potential for physical harm if something goes wrong with a purchase
* '''Social Risk''': the potential for loss of social status associated with a purchase
* '''Psychological Risk''': the potential for a purchase to result in a loss of self-esteem

If a consumer perceives a purchase to be risky, they will engage in strategies to reduce the perceived risk until it is within their tolerance levels or, if they are unable to do so, withdraw from the purchase.<ref>Büttner, O.B., Schulz, S. and Silberer, S, "Perceived Risk and Deliberation in Retailer Choice: Consumer Behavior towards Online Pharmacies", ''Advances in Consumer Research'', vol. 33, 2006</ref> Thus, the consumer's perceptions of risk drive information search activities.

Services marketers have argued that risk perception is higher for services because they lack the search attributes of products (i.e. tangible properties that can be inspected prior to consumption).<ref>Mitchell, V-W. and Greatorex, M. "Risk Perception and Reduction in the Purchase of Consumer Services", ''The Service Industries Journal'', Vol. 13, no. 4, 1993, pp 179-200</ref> In terms of risk perception, marketers and economists identify three broad classes of purchase: [[search good]]s, [[experience good]]s, and [[credence goods]] with implications for consumer evaluation processes.<ref>Zeithaml, V. A. ''How Consumer Evaluation Processes Differ Between Goods and Services,'' (1981), in:  ''AMA Conference Proceedings'', James H. Donnelly and William R. George (eds), Chicago IL: [[American Marketing Association]], p. 186-190</ref> Search goods, which include most tangible products, possess tangible characteristics that allow consumers to evaluate quality prior to purchase and consumption. Experience goods, such as restaurants and clubs, can only be evaluated with certainty after purchase or consumption. In the case of credence goods, such as many professional services, the consumer finds it difficult to fully appreciate the quality of the goods even after purchase and consumption has occurred. Difficulties evaluating quality after consumption may arise because the cost of obtaining information is prohibitive, or because the consumer lacks the requisite skills and knowledge to undertake such evaluations. These goods are called credence products because the consumer's quality evaluations depend entirely on the trust given to the product manufacturer or service provider.<ref>Jourdan, P., "Search Or Experience Products: an Empirical Investigation of Services, Durable and Non-Durable Goods", in:  ''Asia Pacific Advances in Consumer Research '', Volume 4, Paula M. Tidwell and Thomas E. Muller (eds), Provo, UT, Association for Consumer Research,(2001), pp 167-174 Online:http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/11342/volumes/ap04/AP-04</ref>

Typical risk-reduction strategies used include:<ref>Dowling, G.R. and Staelin, R., "A Model of Perceived Risk and Intended Risk-Handling Activity", ''Journal of Consumer Research'', Vol. 21, No. 1, 1994, pp. 119-134</ref><ref>Mitchell, V-W.  and Greatorex, M., "Risk Perception and Reduction in the Purchase of Consumer Services", ''Service Industries Journal'', 1993, pps 179-200</ref>

[[File:US Navy 060513-N-5174T-045 Lt. Taylor Forester makes a few last minute decisions before purchasing a gold necklace from a Navy Exchange vendor aboard the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS Ronald Reagan (CVN 76).jpg|thumb|Prospective purchasers carefully inspect the merchandise before purchasing expensive gold jewellery.]]
* '''Advertising and Promotional Messages''': pay closer attention to product or brand related promotion including advertising messages
* '''Shopping Around''': comparing offers and prices, inspecting the merchandise
* '''Buy Known Brand''': using a known, reputable brand as an indicator of quality merchandise
* '''Buy from Reputable Store''': relying on a reputable retail outlet as an indicator of quality
* '''Product Reviews''': reading independent reviews in main media (e.g. newspapers, magazines), written by independent experts
* '''Online product reviews or consumer-generated testimonials''': reading about the experiences of other consumers (e.g. TripAdvisor, Amazon customer reviews)
* '''Sampling or Limited-scale Trial''': where practical, obtaining samples, free trial or a 'test-drive' prior to purchase
* '''Manufacturer Specifications''': reading information provided by manufacturers e.g. brochures or specs
* '''Referrals''': obtaining referrals from friends or relatives
* '''Sales Representatives''': talking to sales reps in retail outlets
* '''Product Guarantees''': looking for formal guarantees or warranties

=== New product adoption and diffusion of innovations ===
{{See also|Diffusion of innovations|Bass diffusion model}}
[[File:Diffusionofideas.PNG|thumb|left|The diffusion of innovations according to Rogers. As successive groups of consumers adopt the innovation(shown in blue), its market share (yellow) will eventually reach saturation level.]]
Within consumer behaviour, a particular area of interest is the study of how innovative new products, services, ideas, or technologies spread through groups. Insights about how innovations are diffused (i.e., spread) through populations can assist marketers to speed up the new product adoption process and fine-tune the marketing program at different stages of the diffusion process. In addition, diffusion models provide benchmarks against which new product introductions can be tracked.

A sizeable body of literature has been devoted to the diffusion of innovation.<ref>[[Everett Rogers|Rogers, E.M.]], "New Product Adoption and Diffusion", ''Journal of Consumer Research'', Vol. 2, No. 4, 1976, pp. 290-301</ref> Research studies tend to fall into two broad categories: general diffusion research which is an approach that seeks to understand the general process of diffusion and applied diffusion research which consists of studies that describe the diffusion of specific products at particular moments in time or within given social communities.<ref>Mahajan, V. and Peterson, E.A, ''Models for Innovation Diffusion'', Volume 48, 1985.</ref> Collectively these studies suggest a certain regularity in the adoption process; initially few members adopt the innovation but over time successive, overlapping waves of people begin to adopt the innovation.<ref>Business Dictionary, http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/diffusion-of-innovation.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161030142553/http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/diffusion-of-innovation.html |date=2016-10-30 }}</ref> This pattern contributes to a generalised S-shaped curve, as shown in the figure at right. However, the exact shape and timing of curves varies in different product markets such that some innovations are diffused relatively quickly, while others can take many years to achieve broad market acceptance.

The diffusion model developed by [[Everett Rogers]] is widely used in consumer marketing because it segments consumers into five groups, based on their rate of new product adoption.<ref>Lowrey, T.M., "The Use of Diffusion Theory in Marketing: a Qualitative Approach to Innovative Consumer Behavior", in ''Advances in Consumer Research'', Vol. 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon, Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, 1991, pp 644-650. Online: http://acrwebsite.org/volumes/7230/volumes/v18/NA-18.</ref>  Rogers defines the diffusion of innovation as the process by which that innovation is "communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system."<ref>Rogers, E.M., ''Diffusion of Innovations,'' New York, The Free Press, p. 5.</ref> Thus the diffusion process has a number of elements, the innovation, the communication channels, time and the social system. An innovation is any new idea, object or process that is perceived as new by members of the social system. Communication channels are the means by which information about the innovation is transmitted to members of the social system and may include mass media, digital media and personal communications between members of the social system.  Time refers to the rate at which the innovation is picked up by the members of the social system.

Table 1: Adopter Categories<ref>Based on Rogers, E.M., ''The Diffusion of Innovations'', 5th ed., N.Y., Free Press, 2003</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Adopter Group
! Proportion of All Adopters
! Psycho-social and Demographic Characteristics
|-
| Innovators
| 2.5%
|
* adopt new products or concepts well ahead of the social community
* venturesome; like new ideas
* are willing to accept some uncertainty/risk in purchase decision-making
* are active information seekers
* cosmopolitan; move in broad social circles
* have access to financial resources (which helps absorb potential losses when innovations fail)
* tend to be heavy users or category enthusiasts (e.g. tech-heads are the first to adopt new communications technologies)
* tend to be younger, well-educated, and affluent
|-
| Early adopters
| 13.5%
|
* second group to adopt new products or concepts
* not too far ahead of the community in terms of innovativeness
* have the respect of their social communities
* potential adopters look to early adopters as role models
* are important opinion leaders
* higher social status and well-educated
|-
| Early majority
| 34%
|
* third group to adopt new products or concepts
* adopt innovations only marginally ahead of the community average
* tend to be more deliberate in purchase decision-making
* average social status and education levels
|-
| Late majority
| 34%
|
* adopt new products or concepts slightly later than average
* skeptical in purchase decision-making
* adoption is often a response to social community pressures
|-
| Laggards
| 16%
|
* last group to adopt new products or concepts
* highly cautious; need to be confident that an innovation will not fail before purchasing
* are the most risk-averse of all adopter segments; dislike change
* traditionalists; resistant to change; look to the past
* somewhat isolated within their social community
* often adopt innovations when they are becoming obsolete
* tend to be older, less well educated, and less affluent
|}

A number of factors contribute to the rate at which innovations are diffused through a social community.<ref>Rogers, E.M., ''Diffusion of Innovations,'' 5th ed., New York, The Free Press, 2003 pp 11-12.</ref>
[[File:Mito test drive.jpg|thumb|Facilitating a 'test-drive' can encourage consumers to speed up adoption rates.]]
* '''Relative advantage''': the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be superior to alternatives
* '''Compatibility''': the extent to which an innovation fits in with an individual's values, lifestyles and past experiences
* '''Complexity''': the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be easy or difficult to understand and use
* '''Trialability''': the extent to which an individual can experiment with the innovation on a limited scale prior to adoption
* '''Observability''': the degree to which the results of the innovation are visible to other members of the social community
Innovations with some or all of these factors are more likely to be adopted quickly. Accordingly, marketing communications may stress the innovation's relative benefits over other solutions to the consumer's problem. Marketing messages may also focus on compatibility and observability. Marketers can also facilitate adoption by offering limited scale trial (e.g. samples, test drives, sale on approval) enabling consumers to develop an understanding of the innovation and how it is used prior to purchase.

Studies have shown that the diffusion rate for many new technologies is speeding up.<ref>Desilver, D."The Ever Accelerating Rate of Technology Adoption, Pew Research, 14 March 2014, Online: http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/03/14/chart-of-the-week-the-ever-accelerating-rate-of-technology-adoption/</ref> The figure in the ''Household Penetration of Selected Communications Technologies'' report illustrates U.S. household penetration rates of selected communications technologies, measured as a percentage of all households.<ref>The figure is based on data supplied by Google, https://www.docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1uvn7o1X19Equ5EDvjXEMxpziAEAsXTJK9Xbf8NwYiAo/htmlview</ref> The slope of the curve becomes steeper with each successive innovation indicating a more rapid diffusion rate. For example, it took decades for the telephone to achieve 50 percent penetration rates beginning in around 1900, but it took less than five years for cellphones to achieve the same penetration rates. In order to explain the increasing pace of adoption, some have pointed to supply-side issues such as reduced barriers to entry and lower costs of innovation,<ref>Market Realist, http://marketrealist.com/2015/12/adoption-rates-dizzying-heights/</ref><ref>McGrath, R., "[https://hbr.org/2013/11/the-pace-of-technology-adoption-is-speeding-up The Pace of Technology Adoption is Speeding Up]", ''Harvard Business Review'', 25 November 2013</ref> while others have argued that consumers drive adoption rates because they place a high value on the convenience of new innovations.<ref>Forbes Technology Council, "How Consumers are Impacting the Adoption of New Technology, Forbes Blog, 21 June 2016, Online: https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2016/06/21/how-consumers-are-impacting-the-adoption-of-new-technology/#5a48cc917ba6</ref>

=== Brand-switching ===
[[consumer switching|Brand-switching]] occurs when a consumer chooses to purchase a different brand from their regular or customary brand. Consumers switch brands for a variety of reasons including that the store did not have the regular brand or the consumer's desire for variety or novelty in brand choice. In the fast moving consumer goods market (FMCG), the incidence of switching is relatively high. A great deal of marketing activity is targeted at brand-switchers. Rossiter and Bellman have proposed a classification of consumers based on brand-loyalty/switching behaviour:<ref>Rossiter, J and Bellman, S., ''Marketing Communications: Theory and Applications'', Pearson Australia, 2005, pp 80-87.</ref>

;Brand Loyals: Purchase preferred brand on almost every purchase occasion
;Favourable Brand Switchers: Exhibit moderate preference for the brand or brands that they buy and can be readily enticed to purchase competing brands
;Other Brand Switchers: Normally purchase a competing brand, possibly because they are unaware of our brand or due to a negative experience with our brand
;New Category Users:  Those who are unaware of a category but have potential to become new users

Marketers are particularly interested in understanding the factors that lead to brand-switching. A global, large sample survey carried out by Nielsen shows that four in 10 shoppers (41%) said that getting a better price would encourage them to switch brands (or service provider/retailer), 26% said quality was an incentive to switch, 15% looked for a better service agreement and 8% said that improved features are a switching incentive.<ref>Nielsen International, ''Global Survey of Loyalty Sentiment'', 2013: [Topline survey findings], Online: http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2013/the-price-is-right-incentives-that-stimulate-switching-behavior.html</ref>  However, cross-cultural differences were observed among respondents. Price was the major switch incentive for more than half of North Americans (61%) and Europeans (54%) but price and quality held equal sway in Asia-Pacific and Middle East/Africa, with roughly one-third of respondents each in both regions reporting that both price and quality were the major incentives to switching.

The concept of ''switching costs'' (also known as [[switching barriers]]) is pertinent to the understanding of brand switching. Switching costs refer to the costs incurred by a consumer when they switch from one supplier to another (or from one brand to another). Although switching costs are often monetary, the concept can also refer to psychological costs such as time, effort, and inconvenience incurred as a result of switching. When switching costs are relatively low, as in the case of many fast moving consumer goods (FMCG), the incidence of brand switching tends to be higher.{{citation needed|date=December 2018}} An example of switching that includes both monetary and psychological costs is when Android or Apple users wish to switch to a different platform, they would need to sacrifice their data, including purchased music tracks, apps, or media and may also need to learn new routines to become an efficient user.

On the contrary, a key strategy to control the perception of a product to prevent brand switching through marketing is the halo effect. First coined by Edward Thorndike, the halo effect refers to the phenomenon whereby a product is viewed under a positive light because of the overall positive perception of the brand, of a concept highlighted in the marketing or related to its packaging.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Journal of Sensory Studies |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12243 |title=Organic label's halo effect on sensory and hedonic experience of wine: A pilot study |last1=Apaolaza |first1=Vanessa |last2=Hartmann |first2=Patrick |last3=Echebarria |first3=Carmen |last4=Barrutia |first4=Jose |date=30 January 2017 |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |access-date=17 February 2025}}</ref> For example, due to the prestige of Apple as a maker of high quality products based on the success of such well-known consumer electronic products as the iPod or the MacBook, the new products of the company are perceived in a very positive light based on the halo effect of the Apple brand.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.academia.edu/40683635/APPLE_INC_The_Halo_Effect |title=APPLE, INC. The Halo Effect |last=Johnson-Jacobs |first=Hadassah |date=2017 |publisher=Academia |access-date=17 February 2025}}</ref> Similarly, the products of luxury brands such as Hermes or Louis Vuitton are also influenced by the halo effect. Similarly, in the food industry, packaging that includes the words “Ecological” or “Organic,” tends to create a halo effect around the quality and healthiness of the product.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Fashion & Law Journal |url=https://fashionlawjournal.com/the-psychology-behind-luxury-purchases/ |title=The Psychology Behind Luxury Purchases: Understanding Why Consumers Are Drawn to Luxury Fashion Items |first=Fashion Law Journal |date=11 Jan 2024 |publisher=Fashion & Law Journal |access-date=17 February 2025}}</ref>

=== Channel-switching ===
[[File:Inside a new officeworks store.jpg|thumb|right|The advent of "category killers", such as Australia's Officeworks, has contributed to an increase in channel switching behaviour.]]

Channel-switching (not to be confused with zapping or channel surfing on TV) is the action of consumers switching to a different purchasing environment (or distribution channel) to purchase goods, such as switching from brick-and-mortar stores to the internet.<ref name=":4">{{cite web|url=https://mospace.umsystem.edu/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10355/5598/research.pdf|title=Explaining Consumers' Channel-Switching Behavior Using the Theory of Planned Behavior}}</ref> A major reason for this channel switching behaviour is the convenience that online shopping provides for consumers. Consumers can shop online at any hour of the day, without having to drive, travel or walk to a physical store, and browse for as little or as much time as they please. The additional lure of 'online only' deals and discounts helps enforce a consumer's preference to shop online. Other factors for this shift are the globalisation of markets, the advent of [[category killer]]s (such as [[Officeworks]] and [[Kids 'R Us]]) as well as changes in the legal regulatory environment. For instance, in Australia and New Zealand, following a relaxation of laws prohibiting supermarkets from selling therapeutic goods, consumers are gradually switching away from pharmacies and towards supermarkets for the purchase of minor analgesics, cough and cold preparations and complementary medicines such as vitamins and herbal remedies.<ref>Roy Morgan Research, "How Vital are Vitamins:, Research Finding No. 5503, Media Release, 14 March 2014 online: http://roymorgan.com.au/findings/5503-how-vital-are-vitamins-201403252241 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161006014015/http://roymorgan.com.au/findings/5503-how-vital-are-vitamins-201403252241 |date=6 October 2016 }}</ref>

For the consumer, channel switching offers a more diverse shopping experience. However, marketers need to be alert to channel switching because of its potential to erode market share. Evidence of channel switching can suggest that disruptive forces are at play, and that consumer behaviour is undergoing fundamental changes. A consumer may be prompted to switch channels when the product or service can be found cheaper, when superior models become available, when a wider range is offered, or simply because it is more convenient to shop through a different channel (e.g. online or one-stop shopping).<ref>Reardon, J., McCorkle, D.E. "A Consumer Model for Channel Switching Behavior", ''International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management'', Vol. 30, no. 4, pp.179 - 185</ref> As a hedge against market share losses due to switching behaviour, some retailers engage in multi-channel retailing.<ref>Dholakia1, R.R., Zhao, M. and Dholakia, N., "Multichannel retailing: A case study of early experiences.", ''Journal of Interactive Marketing'', vol. 19, March, pp 63–74, 2009, DOI: 10.1002/dir.20035</ref>

=== Impulse buying ===

According to 1962 research from Hawkins Stern, [[impulse purchase]]s fall into four categories: including pure impulse buying, reminded impulse buying, suggestion impulse buying, and planned impulse buying.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stern|first1=Hawkins|date=1962-01-01|title=The Significance of Impulse Buying Today|journal=Journal of Marketing|volume=26|issue=2|pages=59–62|doi=10.2307/1248439|jstor=1248439}}</ref> While pure impulse buying involves a customer experiencing strong desire for a product they didn't initially plan to buy, reminded impulse buying occurs when a buyer remembers a need for a product by seeing it in a store.<ref name=":6" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Weber |first1=Elke U. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkzHhGqNm2AC |title=Conflict and Tradeoffs in Decision Making |last2=Baron |first2=Jonathan |date=2001-01-01 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521772389 |language=en}}</ref> Suggestion impulse buying occurs when a consumer sees a product that they have no prior knowledge about, envisions a use for it, and decides that they need it, and planned impulse buying happens when a consumer's purchasing plan changes while shopping.

[[File:Cake displayed in shop in Istanbul city.JPG|thumb|left|Large family-sized cakes are more likely to be a planned purchase, while the individual portions are much more likely to be an unplanned purchase.]]


2013 research carried out by Nielsen International suggests that about 72 percent of FMCG purchases are planned, but that 28 percent of supermarket purchases are unplanned or impulse purchases. The top unplanned purchases in the food category are candy (lollies), chocolate, cookies (biscuits), frozen desserts, and snacks and the top unplanned purchases in the non-food category are cosmetics, air-fresheners, toothbrushes, hand-soaps, and hand/body lotions.<ref>Nielsen Research, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20200807094113/https://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/article/2013/connecting-what-consumers-demand-with-what-shoppers-buy/ Connecting What Consumers Demand with What Shoppers Buy]", 2013</ref> This explains why supermarkets place these types of products at the front of the store or near the checkout where the consumer spends more time and is more likely to notice them and therefore more likely to pop them into the shopping basket. Retailers use insights from this type of research to design stores in ways that maximise opportunities for impulse-buying.

A study suggests that subtle tactile cues—such as mobile phone vibrations—may reinforce impulse buying behavior in digital shopping environments. These haptic signals function as secondary reinforcers, potentially increasing the likelihood of spontaneous purchases and contributing to the formation of purchasing habits over time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hampton |first1=W. H. |title=Haptic Feedback as a Reinforcement Cue in Mobile Shopping |journal=Journal of Consumer Research |year=2025 |doi=10.1093/jcr/ucaf025 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/jcr/ucaf025 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Affect: Emotions, feelings and mood ===
The consumer's affective state has implications for a number of different dimensions of consumer behaviour, including information search, evaluation of alternatives, product choice, service encounters, complaining, and advertising responses. Westbrook (1987, p.&nbsp;259) defines affect as a "class of mental phenomena uniquely characterised by a consciously experienced, subjective feeling state, commonly accompanying emotions and moods."<ref>Cited in Bagozzi, R., Gurhan-Canli, Z., Priester, J., ''The Social Psychology Of Consumer Behaviour'', Open University Press, Buckingham, PA, 2002, p. 38</ref> Research suggests that affect plays an important role in underlying attitudes, as well as shaping evaluation and decision-making.<ref>Eagly, A.H., and Chaiken, S. ''The Psychology of Attitudes,'' Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Fort Worth, Texas, 1993.
</ref>

Consumer researchers have noted the difficulties separating the concepts of affect, emotions, feelings, and mood. The line between emotions and mood is difficult to draw and consumer researchers often use the concepts interchangeably.<ref>McPhail, J. and Mattson, J "The Effect of Mood States on the Dyadic Service Encounter", ''Asia Pacific Advances in Consumer Research,'' Vol. 2, eds. Russel Belk and Ronald Groves (eds), Provo, UT : Association for Consumer Research, 1996 pp 41-46. Online: http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=11530</ref> Yet other researchers note that a detailed understanding of the relationship between affect and consumer behaviour has been hampered by the lack of research in the area.<ref>Johnson, A.R. and Stewart, D.W., "[http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.458.2370&rep=rep1&type=pdf#page=16 A Reappraisal of the Role of Emotions in Consumer Behaviour: Traditional and Contemporary Approaches]", in Malhotra, N. K., ''Review of Marketing Research,'' Vol 1, Armonk, London, 2005, pp 3-33</ref> Indeed, within the consumer behaviour literature, there is widespread agreement that the role of emotions is an area that is currently under-researched and is in need of greater attention, both theoretically and empirically.

====Information search====

Studies have found that people in a positive mood are more efficient at information search activities.  That, is they are more efficient at processing information, are able to integrate information by identifying useful relationships and arrive at creative solutions to problems. Due to their efficiency processing information, those who are in a positive mood are generally quicker to make decisions and easier to please. Research consistently shows that people in a positive mood are more likely to evaluate information positively.<ref>Bagozzi, R., Gurhan-Canli, Z., Priester, J., ''The Social Psychology Of Consumer Behaviour'', Open University Press, Buckingham, PA, 2002, pp 60-63</ref> As online environments become more important as a consumer search tool, it may be prudent for web designers to consider site-design issues such as ease of navigation, lest poor design contribute to customer frustration thereby engendering a bad mood and ultimately leading to unfavourable product/brand evaluations.

====Choice====

[[File:Ässä Mix.jpg|thumb|The immediate pleasure of eating candy often outweighs the longer term benefit of a healthier food choice.]]

Affect may play an important role in [[impulse purchase|impulse]]-[[buying decision]]s. Research suggests that consumers place higher weightings on immediate affective rewards and punishments, while [[delayed reward]]s receive less weighting.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Cohen, J.B.|author2=Pham, M.T. |author3= Andrade, E.B.|title=The Nature and Role of Affect in Consumer Behavior|pages=33–34| website=APA PsycNet | date=1999-06-01 | url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2007-16424-011 | access-date=2021-09-09}}</ref> For instance, the immediate pleasure of eating a sweet treat often outweighs the longer term benefits of eating a healthy alternative such as fruit. This occurs because the immediate emotional gain is a strong driver, and one that consumers can readily visualise whereas the more distant goal lacks sufficient strength to drive choice.

====Customer experience====

Customers who are in a bad mood are more difficult to please. They are slower to process information and consequently take longer to make decisions. They tend to be more argumentative and are more likely to complain.

====Customer satisfaction====

The relationship between affect and customer satisfaction is an area that has received considerable academic attention, especially in the services marketing literature.<ref>Gountas, S. and Gountas, J. "The Influence of the Customer's Emotions on their Service Product Evaluation", Perdue, R.R. and Immermans, H.J. P. and Uysal, M. Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, (Vol. 3), 2004</ref> The proposition that there is a positive relationship between affect and satisfaction is well supported in the literature.  In a meta-analysis of the empirical evidence, carried out in 2001, Szymanski et al., suggest that affect may be both an antecedent to and an outcome of satisfaction. Emotions elicited during consumption are proposed to leave affective traces in memory that are available for consumers to access and integrate into their satisfaction assessments.<ref>Szymanski, D.M. and Henard, D.H, "Customer satisfaction; A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Evidence", ''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science'', vol. 29, no. 1 2001 pp 16-35, Online: http://davidhenard.com/Landing_Page/About_files/Szymanski%20%26%20Henard%202001.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012223510/http://davidhenard.com/Landing_Page/About_files/Szymanski%20%26%20Henard%202001.pdf |date=2016-10-12 }}</ref>

A 2011 meta-analysis<ref>https://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=db-management {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> illustrates how both repurchase intent and loyalty enjoy a strong positive relationship (0.54) with customer satisfaction. Another <ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309449362|title=The antecedents of brand loyalty: a meta-analysis study|first1=Wann-Yih|last1=Wu|first2=Nadia|last2=Anridho|date=1 January 2016|journal=International Journal of Services and Standards|volume=11|issue=3|page=242|via=ResearchGate|doi=10.1504/IJSS.2016.10000889}}</ref> meta-analysis finds that "The results indicate that both cognitive-related variables (including brand awareness, brand personality, and brand identity) and hedonic-related variables (including hedonic attitude, entertainment, and aesthetic appeal) have significant impacts on quality and value perceptions towards the brand (including perceived quality, reputation, brand image, perceived value, commitment, and trust). In addition, these variables are all significant predictors of brand loyalty."

A third <ref>{{cite journal|title=Brand personality: A meta-analytic review of antecedents and consequences|first1=Martin|last1=Eisend|first2=Nicola E.|last2=Stokburger-Sauer|s2cid=144201875|date=27 February 2013|journal=Marketing Letters|volume=24|issue=3|pages=205–216|doi=10.1007/s11002-013-9232-7}}</ref> meta-analysis, from 2013 elaborates on the concept of brand personality (bp): "First, the key drivers of BP are communication with hedonic benefit claims, branding activities, a brand's country-of-origin, and consumer personalities. Second, the study finds that the effects of BP are stronger for mature brands than for brands in the early life cycle stages. Third, sincerity and competence have the strongest influence on brand success variables (e.g., brand attitude, image, commitment, purchase intention), while excitement and ruggedness have the weakest influence on brand attitude and brand commitment."

====Advertising====

Emotion can play an important role in advertising. In advertising, two different approaches to persuasion are common: (a) ''thinking ads'' that require cognitive processing (also known as the ''central route to persuasion'') and, (b) ''feeling ads'' that are processed at an emotional level (also known as the ''peripheral route'').<ref>Cacioppo, J.T., Petty, R.E.; Chuan Feng, K. and Rodriguez, R. "Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective", ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology'', Vol 51, No. 5, 1986, pp 1032-1043. https://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.1032</ref> Advertisers can bypass cognitive, rational processing which can lead to counter-arguing by simply appealing to the emotions. Neuro-imaging studies suggest that when evaluating brands, consumers primarily use emotions (personal feelings and experiences) rather than information (brand attributes, features, and facts).<ref>Murray, P.N., "How Emotions Influence What We Buy: The emotional core of consumer decision-making", ''Psychology Today'', Feb 26, 2013 Online: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/inside-the-consumer-mind/201302/how-emotions-influence-what-we-buy</ref>

It is relatively widely accepted that emotional responses require fewer processing resources (i.e. are easier) and also result in more enduring associations with the brand being advertised.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|author1=Heath, R. |author2=Brandt, D. |author3= Nairn, A |s2cid=54530013 |name-list-style=amp |date=2006|title=Brand Relationships: Strengthened by Emotion, Weakened by Attention|journal= Journal of Advertising Research |doi=10.2501/s002184990606048x|volume=46|issue=4 |pages=410–419}}</ref> Feelings elicited by the advertising message can shape attitudes towards the brand and to the advertisement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=''Marketing communications: Brands, experiences and participation''|last=Fill, C|publisher=United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited|year=2013}}</ref>

=== Customer loyalty ===
{{See also|Loyalty marketing|customer retention|brand loyalty|loyalty program|customer loyalty program}}

[[Loyalty business model|Customer loyalty]], defined as "the relationship between an individual's relative attitude and repeat patronage" (Dick and Basu, 1994: p.&nbsp;99). Thus, by definition, loyalty has both an attitudinal component and a behavioural component. Dick and Basu proposed four types of loyalty based on relative attitude and patronage behaviour:<ref>Dick, A.S. and Basu, K. "Customer Loyalty: Toward an Integrated Conceptual Framework", ''Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science'', Vol. 22, no. 2, 1994, pp 99-113</ref>

[[File:Dick and basus loyalty matrix.jpg|thumb|left|Dick and Basu's Loyalty Matrix]]

;No Loyalty: Characterised by low relative attitude and low repeat patronage behaviour. May occur when competing brands are seen as similar or in the case of new brands (or categories) where insufficient time has elapsed for loyalty to become established.
;Spurious Loyalty: Characterised by low relative attitude and high repeat patronage. Spurious loyalty occurs when the consumer undertakes repeat purchasing due to situational factors such as access, convenience. or shelf placement. Spurious loyalty can also occur when there are no genuine alternatives or the consumer is 'locked-in' to purchasing a given brand due to some quasi-contractual arrangement or membership status which creates difficulties for switching. In other words, where switching costs are relatively high, high patronage behaviour may be observed despite the absence of a favourable attitude towards the brand. An example would be a consumer who always purchases petrol from the same outlet on the way to work because there are no other outlets in the vicinity.
;Latent Loyalty: Characterised by high relative attitude and low repeat patronage. Latent loyalty occurs when situational factors over-ride strong favourable attitudes. For example, a person may have a preferred restaurant but may not patronise it due to the preferences of dining companions.
;Loyalty: (i.e. true loyalty)  Characterised by favourable attitude and favourable patronage behaviour. For marketers, true loyalty is the ideal situation.

[[File:Customerloyalitycards.JPG|thumb|Frequent flyer schemes are among the most well known of the reward programs.]]

[[Loyalty marketing]] programs are built on the insight that it costs 5-20 times more to acquire a new customer than to retain an existing customer.<ref>Gallo, A., "The Value of Keeping the Right Customers, ''Harvard Business Review'' Online, https://hbr.org/2014/10/the-value-of-keeping-the-right-customers</ref> Marketers use a variety of loyalty programs to strengthen customer attitudes towards the brand (or service provider/retailer) in order to retain customers, minimise customer defections, and strengthen loyalty bonds with existing customers. Broadly there are two types of program: reward and recognition programs.  In a '''Reward Program''', the customer accumulates points for each purchase, and the points can subsequently be exchanged for goods or services.<ref>Wirtz, J., Mattila, A.S. and Lwin, M.O., "How Effective Are Loyalty Reward Programs in Driving Share of Wallet?" ''Journal of Service Research'', Volume 9, No. 4, 2007, pp 327-334 DOI: 10.1177/1094670506295853</ref> '''Recognition Programs''' operate on a quasi-membership basis where the consumer is issued with a card that upon presentation leads to various entitlements such as free upgrades, special privileges, or access to products/services that are not normally available to non- members, and that acknowledge the loyal customer's "VIP" status.<ref>Rust, R.T., Zeithaml, V.A. and Lemon, K.N., ''Driving Customer Equity: How Customer Lifetime Value is Reshaping Corporate Strategy'', The Free Press, N.Y., 2000, p. 111</ref> For example, a hotel might recognise loyal patrons by providing a complimentary fruit bowl and bottle of champagne in the room on arrival. Whereas reward programs are motivated by the consumer's desire for material possessions, recognition programs are motivated by the consumer's need for esteem, recognition, and status. Many commercial loyalty programs are hybrid schemes, combining elements of both reward and recognition. In addition, not all reward programs are designed to encourage loyalty. Certain reward programs are designed to encourage other types of positive customer behaviour such as the provision of referrals or providing positive word-of-mouth (WOM) recommendations.<ref>Ryu, G. and Feick, L., "A Penny for Your Thoughts: Referral Reward Programs and Referral Likelihood", ''Journal of Marketing'', Vol. 71, January 2007, pp 84–94</ref>

Loyalty marketing can involve the use of databases and sophisticated software to analyse and profile customer loyalty segments with a view to identifying the most desirable segments, setting goals for each segment, and ultimately attempting to increase the size of the loyal customer base.

=== Customer citizenship behaviour ===

Customer citizenship behaviour is the labor that customers do for brands out of loyalty.<ref>Bove, L.L., Pervan, S.J., Beatty, S.E. and Shiu, E, "Service worker role in encouraging customer organizational citizenship behaviors", ''Journal of Business Research'', vol. 62, 2009, pp 698–705, doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2008.07.003</ref> The [[services marketing]] literature{{Who|date=April 2024}} identifies seven distinct types of citizenship behaviour:<ref>Bove, L., Robertson, N. and Pervan, S., "Customer Citizenship Behaviours: Towards the Development of a Typology", ''Australia New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference Proceedings,'' Adelaide, 1–3 December 2003 <online: http://smib.vuw.ac.nz:8081/WWW/ANZMAC2003/papers/BB13_bovel.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702120342/http://smib.vuw.ac.nz:8081/WWW/ANZMAC2003/papers/BB13_bovel.pdf |date=2007-07-02 }}> p. 332</ref> voice (when customers direct their complaint to the service provider in order to rectify and maintain the relationship), display of affiliation, policing (the observation of other customers to ensure their appropriate behaviour), flexibility, service improvement (providing ideas and suggestions for organisations), word-of-mouth referrals, and benevolent acts of service.

=== Internet consumer behaviour ===
Traditional models of consumer behaviour were developed by scholars such as Fishbein and Ajzen <ref>Fishbein, M., and Ajzen, I., Belief, Attitude, Intention and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research, 1975, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA</ref> and Howard and Sheth <ref>Howard, J.A. and [[Jagdish Sheth|Sheth, J.N.]], 1969, The Theory of Buyer Behavior, Vol. 14. New York, Wiley</ref> in the 1960s and 70s. More recently, Shun and Yunjie have argued that online consumer behaviour is different to offline behaviour and as a consequence requires new theories or models.<ref>Shun, C. and Yunjie, X., "Effects of outcome, process and shopping enjoyment on online consumer behaviour", Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, Vol. 5, 2006, pp 272–28, <Online:  https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shun_Cai/publication/220066620_Effects_of_outcome_process_and_shopping_enjoyment_on_online_consumer_behaviour/links/58cbb43692851c31f656c821/Effects-of-outcome-process-and-shopping-enjoyment-on-online-consumer-behaviour.pdf></ref> After COVID-19, online consumer behaviour seems more essential, because since COVID-19 began, there were about 31% more people started shopping online with 43% of all respondents compared to only 12% of respondents before COVID-19.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jílková |first1=Petra |last2=Králová |first2=Petra |date=February 2021 |title=Digital Consumer Behaviour and eCommerce Trends during the COVID-19 Crisis |journal=International Advances in Economic Research |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=83–85 |doi=10.1007/s11294-021-09817-4 |issn=1083-0898 |pmc=7988251}}</ref>

Research has identified two types of consumer value in purchasing, namely product value and shopping value. Product value is likely to be similar for both online and offline shoppers. However, the shopping experience will be substantially different for online shoppers. In an offline shopping environment, consumers derive satisfaction from being within the physical store environment or retail landscape (hedonic motivations). In the case of online purchasing, shoppers derive satisfaction from their ability to navigate a website and the convenience of online searching which allows them to compare prices and 'shop around' with minimal time commitment. Thus the online consumer is motivated by more utilitarian factors.<ref>Shun, C. and Yunjie, X., "Effects of outcome, process and shopping enjoyment on online consumer behaviour", Electronic Commerce Research and Applications, Vol. 5, 2006, pp 275–76, <Online: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shun_Cai/publication/220066620_Effects_of_outcome_process_and_shopping_enjoyment_on_online_consumer_behaviour/links/58cbb43692851c31f656c821/Effects-of-outcome-process-and-shopping-enjoyment-on-online-consumer-behaviour.pdf></ref>

==== Different types of online behaviour ====
Consumers may use online platforms for various stages of the purchase decision. Some consumers use online sources simply to acquire information about planned purchases. Others use online platforms for making the actual purchase. In other situations, consumers may also use online platforms to engage in post-purchase behaviours, such as staying connected with a brand by joining a brand community. Or they may become a brand advocate by posting a product review online, or providing brand referrals via social media. Some e-commerce providers have encountered a challenge in courting consumers who seek information online, but still prefer to turn to bricks and mortar retailers for their purchase. To understand the needs and habits of these and other kinds of online shoppers, online marketers have segmented consumers into different kinds of online behaviour in accordance with their online behavioural characteristics. Lewis and Lewis (1997) identified five market segments based on the way that consumers use the Internet in the purchase decision process:<ref>Cited in Dann, S. and Dann, S., ''E-Marketing: Theory and Application''London, Palgrave-Macmillan, 2011, pp 144-45</ref>

# "Directed Information-seekers" are users that primarily look for information about a product or service online, but there is no guarantee that they may be converted into online buyers.
# "Undirected Information-seekers" are newcomers to a product or service. They are more likely to interact with online prompts, and click through to web pages linked in advertising.
# "Directed Buyers" have a predetermined mindset and wish to purchase a specific product or service online.
# "Bargain Hunters" are price-sensitive users that like to discover products during sales promotions. For these users, discounts are a major attraction to online sales conversion.
# "Entertainment Seekers" are online consumers that are attracted to marketing delivered as a fun activity. Interactive online games could be useful in attracting this kind of customer.

==== A typology of online consumer behaviour ====
Wendy Moe (2003)<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moe|first1=W.|date=2003|title=Buying, Searching, or Browsing: Differentiating Between Online Shoppers Using In-Store Navigational Clickstream|url=http://lb-primo.hosted.exlibrisgroup.com/primo_library/libweb/action/display.do?frbrVersion=7&tabs=detailsTab&ct=display&fn=search&doc=TN_sciversesciencedirect_elsevierS1057-7408(03)70174-0&indx=2&recIds=TN_sciversesciencedirect_elsevierS1057-7408(03)70174-0&recIdxs=1&elementId=1&renderMode=poppedOut&displayMode=full&frbrVersion=7&frbg=&&dscnt=0&scp.scps=scope:(LOUGH_ML),scope:(LOUGH_DSP),scope:(LOUGH_LMS),scope:(LOUGH-SFX),primo_central_multiple_fe&mode=Basic&vid=LB_VU1&srt=rank&tab=local&vl(freeText0)=Wendy%20Moe%202003&dum=true&dstmp=1494298840949|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|volume=13|issue=1|pages=29–39|doi=10.1207/s15327663jcp13-1&2_03|doi-broken-date=16 November 2024 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> argues that in the offline environment, consumers who are shopping in stores can be easily classified by experienced sales employees only by watching their shopping behaviours. Such classification may not appear online, but Moe and Fader<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Moe|first1=W.|last2=Fader|first2=P.|date=2004|title=Capturing evolving visit behavior in clickstream data|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=18|issue=1|pages=5–19|doi=10.1002/dir.10074|citeseerx=10.1.1.37.5128|s2cid=2776467}}</ref> argued that it is feasible to predict practical buying, surfing, and searching action online by investigating click patterns and repetition of visit within online behaviour. In addition, a report of E-consultancy about "benchmarking of user experience" outlined three kinds of online consuming behaviour as a valuable classification for the research of design of web pages to better serve different kinds of consuming behaviour. The three categories are: "trackers", "hunters", and "explorers".
# "Trackers" are the online consumers who are exactly looking for a product that they definitely wish to buy. They use the Internet for the information about its price, delivery methods, post-purchase service, and so on. Once they have found the proper information, little effort is needed to let them do the business.
# "Hunters" just know the categories of the product that they need, for instance, a novel for leisure time. However, they have not made specific decision on whose novel to buy. They use the Internet to find a list of product of their needed categories to make comparison. This kind of online consumer needs advice and help to do their business.
# "Explorers" do not even have the categories of product on their minds. In fact, they just want to buy something online. There is more uncertainty of this type of online consumers.

==== Influence of the Internet on buying process ====
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Table<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/internetmarketin00chaf|url-access=limited|title=Internet marketing|last1=Chaffey|first1=D.|date=2006|publisher=Financial Times Prentice Hall|isbn=978-1405871815|edition=3rd ed..|location=Harlow|page=[https://archive.org/details/internetmarketin00chaf/page/n137 109]}}</ref>  Internet's impact on buying process
|Stage in
buying process
|1 Unaware
|2 Aware of product need
develop specification
|3 Supplier
search
|4 Evaluate and
select
|5 Purchase
|6 Post-purchase evaluation
and feedback
|-
|Communications
objectives
|Generate awareness
|Position features,
benefit and brand
|Lead generation
(from range of customers)
|Assist purchase
decision
|Facilitate purchase
|Support use and
retain business
|-
|Internet marketing
techniques
|Banner advertising,
PR, links
|Web site content
(plus search support)
|Search engines,
intermediates
|Web site content
intermediates
|Web site content
|Personalised web site content
and interaction
|}
As the preceding table shows, the first row indicates the process of a consumer buying a new product, while the second and third row illustrates the positive influences the Internet could have on buying process by creating effective communications with online consumers. For example, suppose a consumer carelessly sees an advertisement about laptops on [[WeChat|Wechat]], a popular Chinese social media developed by [[Tencent]]. He begins to feel that his laptop is a bit out of date and wants to buy a new one, which is the outcome of good advertisement placed on a daily Internet tool. He does not know anything about how to buy a new one as business changes so fast today, so he searches on [[Google]] to find an answer. On the results page he finds promotional ads which mainly come from [[JD.com]] and [[Taobao]], two competing Chinese online retailers in this field. He prefers to use [[JD.com]], which provides detailed comparisons of brands, prices, locations, and methods of payment and delivery. After careful selection, he makes his order through [[JD.com]] via [[WeChat|Wechat]] payment. [[JD.com]] has one of the fastest distribution channels within China and it supports excellent post-purchase service to maintain its position in the market.

=== The role of aesthetics and visual fluency in relation to consumer choice ===
Consumers decide whether or not they like a product within 90 seconds of viewing it for the first time.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last1=Moir|first1=Diane|date=2011-10-19|title=Trademark Protection of Color Alone: How and When Does a Color Develop Secondary Meaning and Why Color Marks Can Never Be Inherently Distinctive|url=https://digitalcommons.tourolaw.edu/lawreview/vol27/iss2/9|journal=Touro Law Review|volume=27|issue=2|issn=8756-7326}}</ref> Therefore, having an aesthetically pleasing product is essential in the marketplace. Studies in [[processing fluency]] and consumer behaviour have revealed that "that people prefer visual displays that are easier to process and understand."<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last1=Palmer|first1=Stephen E.|last2=Schloss|first2=Karen B.|last3=Sammartino|first3=Jonathan|date=2013-01-02|title=Visual Aesthetics and Human Preference|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=64|issue=1|pages=77–107|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100504|pmid=23020642|s2cid=6258525 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> and "When a product matches the user's associations with it it is perceived as more attractive."<ref name=":9" /> Visually fluent products draw upon consumer's pre-existing associations with their design elements, leading to a sense of familiarity and understanding with the product at hand. Visual cues such as colour, composition, typography, and imagery are associated with the phenomenon of fluency.

==== Colour ====
{{See also|Color psychology}}
[[File:No Name Brand Logo.svg|thumb|181x181px|[[File:No name sans nom chili sauce.jpg|thumb|184x184px]]No Name Brand is associated with economy and affordability. Because of yellow's associations with cheapness, this brand's logo is processed fluently and easily by consumers.]]
Research in colour psychology has shown 62-90% of consumer product assessment is based on colour alone.<ref name=":7" />  Indeed, colours have been shown to be linked to consumer's perceptions<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Labrecque |first1=Lauren I. |last2=Patrick |first2=Vanessa M. |last3=Milne |first3=George R. |date=February 2013 |title=The Marketers' Prismatic Palette: A Review of Color Research and Future Directions: THE MARKETERS' PRISMATIC PALETTE |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/mar.20597 |journal=Psychology & Marketing |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=187–202 |doi=10.1002/mar.20597|url-access=subscription }}</ref> on a product's quality, reliability, and value. The colours blue and black are viewed as being more reliable, valuable, and expensive while yellow, orange, and brown are associated with cheapness and low quality.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.joehallock.com/edu/COM498/associations.html|title=Colour Assignment - Associations|website=www.joehallock.com|access-date=2020-03-28}}</ref> Therefore, a product intended to be perceived as "high quality" with a predominately orange and brown palette would lack visual fluency and would likely fail to elicit a positive response with consumers. However, this can be advantageous if the consumer is already in the market for an item that is known to be inexpensive, in which case the use of yellow, orange, or brown would be appropriate. Colour can also be used to signal brand personality.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Labrecque |first1=Lauren I. |last2=Milne |first2=George R. |date=2012-09-01 |title=Exciting red and competent blue: the importance of color in marketing |journal=Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science |language=en |volume=40 |issue=5 |pages=711–727 |doi=10.1007/s11747-010-0245-y |s2cid=255381568 |issn=1552-7824}}</ref>

==== Composition ====
Composition is another visual tool that has the ability to affect information processing and influence in consumer perceptions. Studies have shown that consumers in western countries will associate products that are right aligned or placed on the right side of a display to be higher quality.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Chae|first1=Boyoun|last2=Hoegg|first2=JoAndrea|date=2013-08-01|title=The Future Looks "Right": Effects of the Horizontal Location of Advertising Images on Product Attitude|url=https://academic.oup.com/jcr/article/40/2/223/2911018|journal=Journal of Consumer Research|language=en|volume=40|issue=2|pages=223–238|doi=10.1086/669476|issn=0093-5301|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Humans also have a center bias, which makes products that are centered or symmetrical in composition or display seem intrinsically more pleasing.<ref name=":10" /> Products that are centered in composition or have centered elements are perceived as being more attractive, popular, and important than products that are left aligned or right aligned.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Valenzuela|first1=Ana|last2=Raghubir|first2=Priya|date=2009|title=Position-based beliefs: The center-stage effect|journal=Journal of Consumer Psychology|language=en|volume=19|issue=2|pages=185–196|doi=10.1016/j.jcps.2009.02.011|issn=1532-7663}}</ref> When an object is centered compositionally, it easier for a viewer to interpret and understand. It becomes more "fluent" and is therefore viewed as being more aesthetically pleasing.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Reber|first1=Rolf|last2=Schwarz|first2=Norbert|s2cid=2626302|date=1999-09-01|title=Effects of Perceptual Fluency on Judgments of Truth|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1053810099903860|journal=Consciousness and Cognition|language=en|volume=8|issue=3|pages=338–342|doi=10.1006/ccog.1999.0386|pmid=10487787|issn=1053-8100|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==== Imagery ====
Evidence has shown that pictorial imagery correlates to higher instances of consumer recall and recognition. Pictorial imagery is also easier to process and gains consumer's attention faster.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Lewis|first1=Michael|last2=Whitler|first2=Kimberly A.|last3=Hoegg|first3=JoAndrea|date=2013-09-01|title=Customer Relationship Stage and the Use of Picture-Dominant versus Text-Dominant Advertising: A Field Study|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022435913000043|journal=Journal of Retailing|language=en|volume=89|issue=3|pages=263–280|doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2013.01.003|issn=0022-4359|url-access=subscription}}</ref> There is significant evidence that when consumers are presented with multiple choices, they will view objects more positively and more aesthetically pleasing when surrounded by congruent imagery.<ref name=":11" /> After repeated exposure, this familiar imagery becomes incorporated into consumer's visual lexicon and they become "fluent" in it. Images with higher levels of visual fluency perceived as being more familiar, likeable, and friendly and are therefore more likely to be chosen by consumers.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oppenheimer|first1=Daniel M.|last2=Frank|first2=Michael C.|s2cid=9786621|date=2008-03-01|title=A rose in any other font would not smell as sweet: Effects of perceptual fluency on categorization|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0010027707001515|journal=Cognition|language=en|volume=106|issue=3|pages=1178–1194|doi=10.1016/j.cognition.2007.05.010|pmid=17618616|issn=0010-0277|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==== Typographic elements ====
Although studies have shown that of pictorial imagery is easier for consumers to process and understand,<ref name=":12" /> the choice of typography remains an indispensable element of product design. Handwritten and scripted fonts are associated with individuality, femininity, and luxury while sans serif fonts embody energy, cleanliness, and modernity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brumberger|first1=E.|date=2003|title=The Rhetoric of Typography: The Persona of Typeface and Text|url=https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/the-rhetoric-of-typography-the-persona-of-typeface-and-text-2|journal=Technical Communication|language=en|volume=50|pages=206–223|issn=0049-3155}}</ref> Font size has also been shown to have a direct correlation on the emotional attributes assigned to a product. One study has shown that larger type size and weight is perceived as more intimidating and authoritative.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bayer|first1=Mareike|last2=Sommer|first2=Werner|last3=Schacht|first3=Annekathrin|date=2012-05-09|title=Font Size Matters—Emotion and Attention in Cortical Responses to Written Words|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=5|pages=e36042|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0036042|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3348912|pmid=22590518|bibcode=2012PLoSO...736042B|doi-access=free}}</ref> Although imagery reigns supreme in product design, type is processed just as easily as pictorial information when the consumer is already familiar with the product.

=== Environmental impact ===

An aspect of [[Individual action on climate change]] is consumer behaviour that affects how much and what kinds of materials are used to produce goods and food, how much material is [[recycled]] or [[composted]], how much ends up as pollution, how much ends up in [[landfill]]s, where goods are produced, how far they travel, and the [[carbon footprint]] of manufacturing, transportation, and disposal. [[Green marketing]] targets consumers who take the environmental impact of their purchases into account. One 2017 study found no impact of green marketing on consumer behaviour in Bangladesh.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} The study suggests policies be made that decrease the cost of eco-friendly products. It also encourages the implementation of programs which raise consumer awareness regarding the issue of [[green consumption]].

There are psychological factors which contribute to a consumer's perception surrounding their personal contributions to climate change inducing actions. One of the more well studied biases is referred to as the "better-than-average", or self-enhancing bias.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal|last1=Leviston|first1=Zoe|last2=Uren|first2=Hannah|date=March 2020|title=Overestimating One's 'Green' Behavior: Better-Than-Average Bias May Function to Reduce Perceived Personal Threat from Climate Change|url=https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/josi.12365|journal=Journal of Social Issues|volume=76|pages=70–85|doi=10.1111/josi.12365|s2cid=213919455}}</ref> This bias depicts an individual's tendency to perceive that their actions are superior, especially when compared to peers or demographically similar consumers. It has been found that this cognitive bias is indeed present when considering how consumers perceive their pro-environmental efforts.<ref name=":22" /> This may be a result of information about climate change leading to feelings of guilt and concern, which activates an unconscious thought process (denial, the better-than-average effect, and other cognitive reactions) that leads to a reduced perception of the threat of climate change. It is a mental [[defense mechanism]] that ultimately leads to a reduction in perceived individual responsibility to take part in green behaviours and one-planet-living.<ref name=":22" />