Editing Exercise (section)

== Other animals ==
Animals like [[chimpanzee]]s, [[orangutan]]s, [[gorilla]]s and [[bonobo]]s, which are closely related to humans, without ill effect engage in considerably less physical activity than is required for human health, raising the question of how this is biochemically possible.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazine=[[Scientific American]] |date=January 1, 2019 |title=Humans Evolved to Exercise: Unlike our ape cousins, humans require high levels of physical activity to be healthy |author=Herman Pontzer}}</ref>

Studies of animals indicate that physical activity may be more adaptable than changes in food intake to regulate [[energy homeostasis|energy balance]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zhu S, Eclarinal J, Baker MS, Li G, Waterland RA | title = Developmental programming of energy balance regulation: is physical activity more 'programmable' than food intake? | journal = The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society | volume = 75 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–77 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26511431 | doi = 10.1017/s0029665115004127 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[Mouse|Mice]] having access to [[Hamster wheel|activity wheels]] engaged in voluntary exercise and increased their propensity to run as adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Acosta W, Meek TH, Schutz H, Dlugosz EM, Vu KT, Garland T | title = Effects of early-onset voluntary exercise on adult physical activity and associated phenotypes in mice | journal = Physiology & Behavior | volume = 149 | pages = 279–286 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26079567 | doi = 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.06.020 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Selective breeding|Artificial selection]] of mice exhibited significant [[heredity|heritability]] in voluntary exercise levels,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swallow JG, Carter PA, Garland T | title = Artificial selection for increased wheel-running behavior in house mice | journal = Behavior Genetics | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 227–237 | date = May 1998 | pmid = 9670598 | doi = 10.1023/A:1021479331779 | s2cid = 18336243 }}</ref> with "high-runner" [[breed]]s having enhanced [[VO2 max|aerobic capacity]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Swallow JG, Garland T, Carter PA, Zhan WZ, Sieck GC | title = Effects of voluntary activity and genetic selection on aerobic capacity in house mice (Mus domesticus) | journal = Journal of Applied Physiology | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–76 | date = January 1998 | pmid = 9451619 | doi = 10.1152/jappl.1998.84.1.69 }}</ref> [[hippocampus|hippocampal]] [[neurogenesis]],<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhodes JS, van Praag H, Jeffrey S, Girard I, Mitchell GS, Garland T, Gage FH | title = Exercise increases hippocampal neurogenesis to high levels but does not improve spatial learning in mice bred for increased voluntary wheel running | journal = Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 117 | issue = 5 | pages = 1006–1016 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 14570550 | doi = 10.1037/0735-7044.117.5.1006 }}</ref> and skeletal muscle [[morphology (biology)|morphology]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garland T, Morgan MT, Swallow JG, Rhodes JS, Girard I, Belter JG, Carter PA | title = Evolution of a small-muscle polymorphism in lines of house mice selected for high activity levels | journal = Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 1267–1275 | date = June 2002 | pmid = 12144025 | doi = 10.1554/0014-3820(2002)056[1267:EOASMP]2.0.CO;2 | s2cid = 198158847 }}</ref>

The effects of exercise training appear to be heterogeneous across non-mammalian species. As examples, exercise training of [[salmon]] showed minor improvements of endurance,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gallaugher PE, Thorarensen H, Kiessling A, Farrell AP | title = Effects of high intensity exercise training on cardiovascular function, oxygen uptake, internal oxygen transport and osmotic balance in chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during critical speed swimming | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 204 | issue = Pt 16 | pages = 2861–2872 | date = August 2001 | pmid = 11683441 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.204.16.2861 | bibcode = 2001JExpB.204.2861G }}</ref> and a forced swimming regimen of [[yellowtail amberjack]] and [[rainbow trout]] accelerated their growth rates and altered muscle morphology favorable for sustained swimming.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Palstra AP, Mes D, Kusters K, Roques JA, Flik G, Kloet K, Blonk RJ | title = Forced sustained swimming exercise at optimal speed enhances growth of juvenile yellowtail kingfish (Seriola lalandi) | journal = Frontiers in Physiology | volume = 5 | pages = 506 | year = 2015 | pmid = 25620933 | pmc = 4287099 | doi = 10.3389/fphys.2014.00506 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Magnoni LJ, Crespo D, Ibarz A, Blasco J, Fernández-Borràs J, Planas JV | title = Effects of sustained swimming on the red and white muscle transcriptome of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed a carbohydrate-rich diet | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 166 | issue = 3 | pages = 510–521 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 23968867 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2013.08.005 | hdl = 11336/24277 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Crocodiles, alligators, and ducks showed elevated aerobic capacity following exercise training.<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Owerkowicz T, Baudinette RV | title = Exercise training enhances aerobic capacity in juvenile estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus) | journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part A, Molecular & Integrative Physiology | volume = 150 | issue = 2 | pages = 211–216 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18504156 | doi = 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.04.594 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Eme J, Owerkowicz T, Gwalthney J, Blank JM, Rourke BC, Hicks JW | title = Exhaustive exercise training enhances aerobic capacity in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) | journal = Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology | volume = 179 | issue = 8 | pages = 921–931 | date = November 2009 | pmid = 19533151 | pmc = 2768110 | doi = 10.1007/s00360-009-0374-0 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Butler PJ, Turner DL | title = Effect of training on maximal oxygen uptake and aerobic capacity of locomotory muscles in tufted ducks, Aythya fuligula | journal = The Journal of Physiology | volume = 401 | pages = 347–359 | date = July 1988 | pmid = 3171990 | pmc = 1191853 | doi = 10.1113/jphysiol.1988.sp017166 }}</ref> No effect of endurance training was found in most studies of lizards,<ref name="Owerk_Baud_2008" /><ref name="Garland_et_al_1987">{{cite journal | vauthors = Garland T, Else PL, Hulbert AJ, Tap P | title = Effects of endurance training and captivity on activity metabolism of lizards | journal = The American Journal of Physiology | volume = 252 | issue = 3 Pt 2 | pages = R450–R456 | date = March 1987 | pmid = 3826409 | doi = 10.1152/ajpregu.1987.252.3.R450 | s2cid = 8771310 }}</ref> although one study did report a training effect.<ref name="jeb">{{cite journal | vauthors = Husak JF, Keith AR, Wittry BN | title = Making Olympic lizards: the effects of specialised exercise training on performance | journal = The Journal of Experimental Biology | volume = 218 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 899–906 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25617462 | doi = 10.1242/jeb.114975 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2015JExpB.218..899H }}</ref> In lizards, [[Sprint (running)|sprint training]] had no effect on maximal exercise capacity,<ref name=jeb /> and muscular damage from over-training occurred following weeks of forced treadmill exercise.<ref name="Garland_et_al_1987" />