Editing Problem solving (section)

==Collective problem solving==
{{See also|Crowdsolving|Collective action|Collaborative intelligence|Mass collaboration|Collective wisdom|The Wisdom of Crowds|Distributed knowledge|Online participation|Group decision-making}}
People solve problems on many different levels—from the individual to the civilizational. Collective problem solving refers to problem solving performed collectively. [[Social issue]]s and global issues can typically only be solved collectively.

The complexity of contemporary problems exceeds the cognitive capacity of any individual and requires different but complementary varieties of expertise and collective problem solving ability.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hung|first1=Woei|title=Team-based complex problem solving: a collective cognition perspective|journal=Educational Technology Research and Development|year=2013|volume=61|issue=3|pages=365–384 |doi=10.1007/s11423-013-9296-3 |s2cid=62663840}}</ref>

[[Collective intelligence]] is shared or group intelligence that emerges from the [[collaboration]], collective efforts, and competition of many individuals.

In collaborative problem solving people [[teamwork|work together]] to solve real-world problems. Members of problem-solving groups share a common concern, a similar passion, and/or a commitment to their work. Members can ask questions, wonder, and try to understand common issues. They share expertise, experiences, tools, and methods.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Jewett|first1=Pamela|first2=Deborah|last2= MacPhee|title=Adding Collaborative Peer Coaching to Our Teaching Identities|journal=The Reading Teacher|year=2012|volume=66|issue=2|pages=105–110|doi=10.1002/TRTR.01089}}</ref> Groups may be fluid based on need, may only occur temporarily to finish an assigned task, or may be more permanent depending on the nature of the problems.

For example, in the educational context, members of a group may all have input into the decision-making process and a role in the learning process. Members may be responsible for the thinking, teaching, and monitoring of all members in the group. Group work may be coordinated among members so that each member makes an equal contribution to the whole work. Members can identify and build on their individual strengths so that everyone can make a significant contribution to the task.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qiyun|title=Design and Evaluation of a Collaborative Learning Environment|journal=Computers and Education|year=2009|volume=53|issue=4|pages=1138–1146|doi=10.1016/j.compedu.2009.05.023}}</ref> Collaborative group work has the ability to promote critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, [[social skills]], and [[self-esteem]]. By using collaboration and communication, members often learn from one another and construct meaningful knowledge that often leads to better learning outcomes than individual work.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=Qiyan|title=Using online shared workspaces to support group collaborative learning|journal=Computers and Education|year=2010|volume=55|issue=3|pages=1270–1276|doi= 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.023}}</ref>

Collaborative groups require joint intellectual efforts between the members and involve [[social interaction]]s to solve problems together. The [[knowledge sharing|knowledge shared]] during these interactions is acquired during communication, negotiation, and production of materials.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kai-Wai Chu|first1=Samuel|first2=David M.|last2=Kennedy|title=Using Online Collaborative tools for groups to Co-Construct Knowledge|journal=Online Information Review|year=2011|volume=35|issue=4|pages=581–597|doi=10.1108/14684521111161945 |s2cid=206388086|issn=1468-4527 }}</ref> Members actively seek information from others by asking questions. The capacity to use questions to acquire new information increases understanding and the ability to solve problems.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Legare|first1=Cristine|first2=Candice |last2=Mills |first3=Andre|last3= Souza |first4=Leigh |last4=Plummer |first5=Rebecca|last5= Yasskin |title=The use of questions as problem-solving strategies during early childhood|journal=Journal of Experimental Child Psychology|year=2013|volume=114|issue=1|pages=63–7 |doi=10.1016/j.jecp.2012.07.002 |pmid=23044374}}</ref>

In a 1962 research report, [[Douglas Engelbart]] linked collective intelligence to organizational effectiveness, and predicted that proactively "augmenting human intellect" would yield a multiplier effect in group problem solving: "Three people working together in this augmented mode [would] seem to be more than three times as effective in solving a complex problem as is one augmented person working alone".<ref>{{cite book|last=Engelbart|first=Douglas|year=1962|chapter-url=https://www.dougengelbart.org/pubs/augment-3906.html#3b9|chapter=Team Cooperation|title=Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework|publisher=Stanford Research Institute|volume=AFOSR-3223}}</ref>

[[Henry Jenkins]], a theorist of new media and media convergence, draws on the theory that collective intelligence can be attributed to media convergence and [[participatory culture]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Flew | first=Terry | year= 2008 | title=New Media: an introduction | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Melbourne}}</ref> He criticizes contemporary education for failing to incorporate online trends of collective problem solving into the classroom, stating "whereas a collective intelligence community encourages ownership of work as a group, schools grade individuals". Jenkins argues that interaction within a knowledge community builds vital skills for young people, and teamwork through collective intelligence communities contributes to the development of such skills.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web|url=http://labweb.education.wisc.edu/curric606/readings/Jenkins2002.pdf|title=Interactive audiences? The 'collective intelligence' of media fans |last=Henry|first=Jenkins|access-date=December 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426232104/https://labweb.education.wisc.edu/curric606/readings/Jenkins2002.pdf|archive-date=April 26, 2018}}</ref>

[[Collective impact]] is the commitment of a group of actors from different sectors to a common agenda for solving a specific social problem, using a structured form of collaboration.

After [[World War II]] the [[UN]], the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods organization]], and the [[WTO]] were created. Collective problem solving on the international level crystallized around these three types of organization from the 1980s onward. As these global institutions remain state-like or state-centric it is unsurprising that they perpetuate state-like or state-centric approaches to collective problem solving rather than alternative ones.<ref>{{cite book|last=Finger|first=Matthias|chapter=Which governance for sustainable development? An organizational and institutional perspective|editor-last1=Park|editor-first1=Jacob|editor-last2=Conca|editor-first2=Ken|editor-last3=Finger |editor-first3=Matthias |title=The Crisis of Global Environmental Governance: Towards a New Political Economy of Sustainability |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-05982-9 |language=en|date=2008-03-27|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lrr3K50r144C&pg=PA48 48]}}</ref><!--https://books.google.com/books?id=CtXvBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189-->

[[Crowdsourcing]] is a process of accumulating ideas, thoughts, or information from many independent participants, with aim of finding the best solution for a given challenge. Modern [[information technologies]] allow for many people to be involved and facilitate managing their suggestions in ways that provide good results.<ref>{{multiref2
|1={{cite journal|last1=Guazzini|first1=Andrea|last2=Vilone|first2=Daniele|last3=Donati|first3=Camillo|last4=Nardi|first4=Annalisa|last5=Levnajić|first5=Zoran|title=Modeling crowdsourcing as collective problem solving|journal=Scientific Reports|date=10 November 2015|volume=5|page=16557|doi=10.1038/srep16557 |pmid=26552943 |pmc=4639727 |bibcode=2015NatSR...516557G|arxiv=1506.09155}}
|2={{cite journal|last1=Boroomand|first1=A.|last2=Smaldino|first2=P.E.|year=2021|title=Hard Work, Risk-Taking, and Diversity in a Model of Collective Problem Solving|journal=Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation|volume=24|number=4|doi=10.18564/jasss.4704 |s2cid=240483312 |doi-access=free}}
}}</ref> The [[Internet]] allows for a new capacity of collective (including planetary-scale) problem solving.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Stefanovitch|first1=Nicolas|last2=Alshamsi |first2=Aamena |last3=Cebrian |first3=Manuel |last4=Rahwan|first4=Iyad|title=Error and attack tolerance of collective problem solving: The DARPA Shredder Challenge|journal=EPJ Data Science |date=30 September 2014|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.1140/epjds/s13688-014-0013-1|doi-access=free|hdl=21.11116/0000-0002-D39F-D|hdl-access=free}}</ref>